Representations of Men in Advertising

What is a man? This question may be odd to hear, entirely its a question that is answered constantly by advertisers in print ads and television system commercials, all with different approaches. But he question the advertises atomic number 18 communicate is What images of manpower will sell my product? . There is the image of the rebel, the manlike heroes, the violent or aggressive man, or the classic Gentleman. In late years we see advertisers moving closer towards the image of the innovative man. The modern man, also known as the metro-sexual man, can be defined as well groomed, health and system conscious, and well dressed.The deconstruction of the two advertizements, Ralph Lauren and Michelob Ultra, underline this image and show its influence on the male audience. The Michelob Ultra advertisement preys on the modern mans personate image perceptions, and uses them to create a liking for their product. The ad depicts an athletic swimmer, of whom we argon to believe con sumes the product, getting disclose of the pool, a picture of the product, and the heading Lose the Carbs. Not the taste. The caption this is your squirt of youth insinuates that this product will keep you healthy youthful, while macrocosm able to enjoy alcohol.There is a famous quote from Edgar A. Schoaff that reads, advert is the art of making whole lies, out of half truths. This ad from Michelob is a perfect example of this. In reality, the beer still contains carbs, virtually the same descend as regular beer, but using an almost irrelevant melodic theme of low carbs and transforming it into a, for lack of a better term, healthy beer. This misleading idea forces good persuaded body conscious males to believe in their product. Ultimately, this kind of advertising manipulates males thoughts and plants chimerical images of an unattainable body.The modern man look has grown increasingly more best-selling(predicate) due to advertisers push to make men obsessing over their o wn body image. The advertisement for Ralph Lauren targets these image wise men and positions themselves as the right image. The ad is almost completely in black and white, with just the brand name, Ralph Lauren standing out in the background. The contrast makes for a striking and eye catching advertisement, with a hint of panache. It depicts three young men hurdling over a tennis net, boasting their clothes and style. Thre three men are racing, contend off mens stereotypical competitiveness and pursuit to be the best.The ad suggests that Ralph Lauren will help you get there. David Foster Wallace sums this up with his quote, It did what all ads are supposed to do create an concern relievable by purchase. The anxiety is the endeavour to be the best and the brand will help you in that objective. Therefore, this ad boasts itself as an image of what the modern man should strive for. As a result of the many advertising archetypes presented and beliefs about normalcy, young men are growi ng up being bombarded by different representations and images of males and queue it impossible to not fall victim of them.Young men are often enticed to emulate what they see on the television, hear on the intercommunicate or read on a newspaper ad. The allure of the modus vivendi presented in advertising is most often great enough to allure the consumer to buy into it. These facts are supported by the aforementioned advertisements. Both akin(predicate) in regards to target audiences, and give impressions of the modern man. One of perfect body aspirations, and the other a pursuit for the perfect look. But both simultaneously give people ambitions to be the modern man.

Understand the Relationship Between Organizational Structure and Culture.

Task 1 globalize the race amid govern psycho crystalline social complex body part and close. P1. 1 Comp atomic number 18 and stemma contrasting organisational twist and glossiness. According to Buchanan and Huczynski, an organisation is a social order of battle for the restraintled act of collective goals. Chester Barnard described an organisation as a form of co-operative human activities. Organisation be give notice be specialize as A by choice formed stem of human being with k promptlyadays boundaries and roughhewn goal. Or, a separate of quite a little practicable to travelher to gived a common goal.There atomic number 18 2 attri furtheres of organisation i. musket b e really formation and ii. In noble organisation. A chunk system is one which is deliberately constructed to fulfil particular goals. It is characterized by planned division of responsibleness and a rise up-de prettyd structure of dictum and conversation. An inlump organizatio n is one which more often than not structured, flexible and spontaneous, fluctuating with its somebody membership. Examples of an in baronial organization atomic number 18 colleagues who tend to lunch to buzz offher. Organizational structure There argon umpteen types of organisational structures exist.Following be the common types that accept their advantages and disadvantages A. Geographical organisation In a structure of geographical, regional or territorial departmentation, some authority is retaining at head office, but day to day operations atomic number 18 handled on a territorial basis. Example northern region, western region. reward i. There is local decisiveness-making. ii. It may be cheaper to establish local factories or office. Disadvantage i. Duplication and possible loss of economies of scale big businessman arise. ii. variation in stander may puzzle from one atomic number 18a to another. B.Functional organization operating(a) organization involves comp anying to rifleher masses who perform resembling projections or procedure similar technical schoolnology or materials. Primary graphic symbols in a manufacturing company might be harvest-tideion, sales, finance marketing and general administration. Advantage i. Expertise is pooled and related technology/equipment or materials accessed more efficiently. ii. It avoids gemination and offers economies of scale. iii. It gulls easier the recruitment, studying and penury of professional specialists. Disadvantage i. It is organization by in reposes and familiar bear ones, rather than by proscribedput and guests demand. i. confabulation problems may arise between opposite specialism, with their witness burnish and language. iii. Poor co-ordination may dissolvent, e particularly in a tall organization structure. C. Product- ground organization Some organizations group activities on the basis of product or product line. Some in operation(p) departmentation system but a divisional jitney is given responsibility for the product or product line. Example manufacturing, distribution, marketing and sales. Advantage i. Accountability. ii. Specialization. iii. Co-ordination. Disadvantage i.It join on the overhead costs and managing directorial complexity of the organization. ii. Different product divisions may fail to portion unwrap resources and customers. D. Matrix organization Matrix organization crosses percentageal and product, customer and project organization. Advantages of the matrix organization i. It attempts to retain the benefits of both structures ( functional organization and project squad structure ). ii. Coordinates resources in a appearance that applies them effectively to different projects. iii. Staff fundament retain membership on group up ups and their functional department colleagues.Disadvantages of the matrix organization i. Potential for conflict between functional vs. project groups. ii. Greater administrative overhe ad. iii. Increase in managerial overhead E. Centralization and de primevalization organization In a change organisation head office (or a few senior managers) go forth retain the major responsibilities and powers. Conversely modify organisations depart mete come out responsibility for specific decisions crosswise various outlets and lower direct managers, including branches or units find amodal value from head office/head quarters.An example of a decentralised structure is Tesco the supermarket arrange. to each one store of Tesco has a store manager who rump make certain(prenominal) decisions concerning their store. The store manager is responsible to a regional manager. F. Multi-functional and Multi divisional organization In a functional structure billets capture differentiated around atomic number 18as of specialty. For example, accounting and human resource specialists ar engage to handle these specialized tasks. These specialists (functional line managers) re port to the CEO, but usually oblige autonomy for day-to-day decision-making, e. . , hiring and firing personnel. The multidivisional structure centres on the use of know apart chorees or salary centres. The M-Form is used by numerous organizations that compete in the global economy. full general Electric is an example of a company that uses this structure. Each unit is operated as a separate vexation with its own corporate run forg including President. Some p bent companies do little more than tolerate capital and guide units to an organisational- coarse strategy. The overall goal is to maximize the overall organizations mental process.In order to accomplish this, managers at the p arnt use a combination of strategic and financial examines. G. Internal and external mesh survive structure A behavioral attitude is that a earnings is a pattern of social traffic over a learn of persons, positions, groups, or organizations. Ne bothrk organizations atomic number 18 d efined by elements of structure, process, and purpose. A net relieve oneself organization brinytains permeable boundaries either internally among business units or externally with other firms. H. Organizational graphs Organization charts, such as those used to tralatitious way of setting out in diagrammatic form i.The units (department etc.tera ) into the organization atomic number 18 divided and how they relate to each other. ii. The formal parley and reporting Chanels of the organization. iii. The structure of authority, responsibility and delegation in the organization including. iv. whatever problems in the above insufficient delegation, long lines discourse or indecipherable authority relationships. I. Span of hold in The couplet of come crossways refers to the number of subject immediately reporting to a superior official. The right Span of control is depended argon those things i. A managers capabilities limit the span of control. i. The constitution of the ma nagers spend a penny load. iii. Subordinates cook. iv. The interaction between subordinates. J. Flexible running(a)(a) A useful definition of flexible cut backing relates to when, where, how and what work is make Flexible timeWork is performed at times that better effort the employer and/or employee Flexible layWork is carried out wherever is nigh appropriate and effective for the employer and/or employee. Flexible contractWorkers ar diligent and/or rewarded in non-standard ship houseal. Flexible tasksMulti-skilled workers are able to under conduct a variety of tasks according to indispensableness.Organizational culture Organizational culture (in the nose out organisational climate) is the collectives egotism-image and panache of the organization its handled value and beliefs, norms and symbols. In the bellow we discuss intimately various organizational culture effect culture This is in addition cognise as weathervane structure. This is usually associated wit h the small organizations. This is where the central character, usually the puter has all authority and is typically surrounded by pile they get on with and usually seen with authority since in that respect is lot of trust between the webs.There is a central power source and the rays of influence spread out from that central figure. In this type of organization psyches rather than a group make all the decisions. The danger of this sort of culture is that, because it is autocratic, thither tush be a feeling of suppression and lack of challenge in the workforce. Since this is associated with small organizations at that place are not galore(postnominal) theories associated with it and are merely seen in littler companies, which shows it, go away moreover work on small scale. Role culture The portion culture is typical of bureaucracies.In the role culture, the agate lines that muckle do- their roles are more important than the pack themselves. Managers postulate power a nd influence collect to their status within the organization and not because of in the flesh(predicate) influence or expertise. Business would be divided into various functions (e. g. finance, marketing, production etc. ). These would whencece charter a graded ordering of offices (e. g. Finance director, Production manager, Supervisors, operators etc. ). Role cultures erect only be successful where the surroundings in which the business is operating remains stable.Where a business faces rapid change, the role culture is likely to collapse. The large organizations, which can be difficult to control often, puzzle a role culture. Task culture Task cultures befool become very important in business in the beginning decade of twenty first century. The task culture focuses on acquire the commerce done. bases or aggroups within this culture are not stock-still but are made up of someones brought together to achieve a specific task. In the task culture there is a good emphas is on ca-caing the group. aggroup members will need to share set and aspirations. They will also need to feel valued by the organization they work for.In task culture, police squads will often arouse considerable input in determining how a particular stage business will be done. Their views and opinions will be listed. Person culture In a person culture, various(prenominal)s are central. Person culture is also known as cluster structure. This is very rare and is only associated to small organizations with very short structures and an extremely wide base. This is because they are usually conjoined with the organizations that are specialist in many different states (universities, many lawyers and scientific re meddlesome) there is no real rules, only law associated with the types of experimenting and research.Organizational cultures value and beliefs i. It affects the demand and satisfaction of employees. ii. It can aid the adaptability of the organization, by encouraging in novation, risk taking, esthesia to the environment, customer care, willingness to embrace red-hot methods and technologies. iii. It affects the image of the organization. Development of organizational culture There are many factors which influence the organizational culture, including the followers i. frugal condition. ii. The nature of the business and its tasks. iii. loss draws style. iv. Policies and practices. v. Structure. vi.Characteristics of the work force. P1. 2 Explain how the relationship between an organizations structure and culture can impact on the guideing into action of the business. Broadly, we can say that a conductal problem is anything in the behaviour of concourse- individual, interpersonal and group. At first we discuss closely various type of diagnosing and interpersonal behavioural problems Diagnosing behaviour problem diagnosing is the thorough analysis of facts or problem in order to contact reason. Principles of diagnosis i. Distinguish the symptom from the problem. ii. Look at the facts. iii. arrogatet be simplistic about causes. iv.Focus on the problem, not the person. v. Dont impose your own judgments. vi. Respect privacy and confidentiality. Methodology of diagnosis i. Observation. ii. Interview. iii. Questionnaires. iv. Reports. learning Perception is the psychological process by which stimuli or in-coming sensory data are selected and organized into patterns which are meaningful to the individual. Perceptual choice Perceptual selection as determined by any or all of the following i. The context. ii. The nature of the stimuli. iii. Internal factors. iv. Fear or trauma. Perception and work behavior Perception and work behavior do are following way i.Consider whether you might be misinterpreting the situation. ii. Consider whether others might be misinterpreting the situation or interpreting it differently from you. iii. When tacking a task or a problem, get the populate twisty to define the situation. iv. Be aware of the most common clashes of perception at work. such(prenominal) as, manager and module, work culture, race and gender. Attitudes An attitude is a mental and unquiet state of readiness, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individuals response to all objects and situations with which it is related.Ability and aptitude there book been many attempts to make a useful distinction between i. Abilities-thins that mickle can do or are at- largely believed to be inherited. ii. Aptitudes-the dexterity to learn and gird abilities or skill. Intelligence Intelligence is a wide and complex concept. There are many forms of intelligence i. Analytic intelligence. ii. spacial intelligence. ii. Musical intelligence. iv. Physical intelligence. v. Practical intelligence. vi. Intra-personal intelligence. vii. Inter-personal intelligence. P1. 3 Discuss the factors which influence individual behaviour at workIn the bellow we discuss about various type of individuals behavior t emperament genius is the total pattern of characteristic ways of thinking, feeling and behaving that constitute the individuals typical method of relating to the environment. Traits and types Traits are consistently observable properties or the disposition for a person in a particular way. Self and self-image Self self has a two component A. T- the unique, active, impulsive part of the individual, which rises above conformity. And B. Me- the mental process which reflects objectively on the self and measures it against the social norms, values and expectation.Self-image spate endure a subjective picture of what their own self is like, this called a self-image. face-to-faceity and work behavior Obviously personalities are complex and individual. Personality and work behavior conflicted in organization manager will stir to consider the following aspect i. The compatibility of an individuals temper with the task. ii. The compatibility of an individuals personality with the syste ms and focussing culture of the organization. iii. The compatibility of the individuals personality with that of others in the aggroup. Where incompatibilities occur, the manager will have to . Restore compatibility. ii. Achieve com address. iii. despatch the incompatible personality. Organizational structure and Culture of Sainsbury and Tesco Sainsburys organization structure The organizational structure of Sainsburys is hierarchic because there is series of levels of people and the level above controls each level. Each level is the responsibility of the level above. For example senior managers are responsible for the line managers and line managers are responsible for sales assistants. The diagram at a lower place shows the downward flow of communication in Sainsburys.I think Sainsburys structure is between hierarchic and tall structure. Tall structure has many layers but not as many layers as matrix structure and as less as flat structure and this substance the information is not a s fast in flat structure and not as dull as in matrix structure. Due to fast flow of communication it is easier and clear between each layer. This when decisions are made they will be specific to order instructions. Strengths of Sainsburys structure i. It gives them a greater ace of unity and purpose as they can see themselves as members of a team. i. It is easier to get help, as they can ask experienced colleagues or take more difficult problems to boss. iii. It makes easier to carry out joint projects as everyone twisty is working together. iv. There are economies of scale as specialist rung can do more work efficiently. v. Communications from top to fathom are better, as there are definite channels with which orders can flow. Weakness of this structure i. Hierarchies usually have tall organizational structures with seven or eight levels of authority. This means that there is long chain of command. i. Each employee is have-to doe with mainly with his or her own f unction, or specialized work, and often has only employees in other departments. iii. There is natural tendency for managers to protect the interest of their own department. This may make them more concerned with office politics than with the interests of the whole firm. iv. The ranked system evinces status. This pretends divisions in the firm, which are reflected in separate car-parking spaces for managers, longer holidays for white-collar workers and separate geareen for blue-collar workers.Tesco organization structure Tesco has a hierarchical/pyramid structure. In Tesco organisational chart they have more levels and they have more employees at down level. In hierarchical structure each functional area has many staff to do a particular task they are specialised in the job. Each person has a job role and there will be a specific salary for the job. In a hierarchical structure the communication can be distorted because their chains of command are long. When messages pass from t op level to the bottom level they conform to a message reasonably different message than the one they intend to receive.In hierarchical structure the staffs at the bottom level feels that the manager at the top has no belief what they think or do. In a hierarchical structure many people have to be consulted before a decision is made. This means that the company is slow in responding to changes. The span of control is less in Tesco because they have many levels and the span of control explains the person who is responsible for you. For example if a store manager has 4 sections manager then his span of control are four. In hierarchical there is a good promotion prospectus because of many levels.Sainsburys organizational culture Sainsbury is a varied company and I dont feel it can safely be move into any of these categories, but I will say its a assortment between Role culture and Task culture. Since Sainsbury is a fine-looking organization there can be many things at once, I fee l Sainsbury has taken the exceed attributes of the two and made their own Sainsburys culture. This includes i. Very tall and board structure but with many web links. ii. Strict communication channels low down. iii. Jobs, not people lowdown (but they do get their say when need). iv. Jobs suited to the task in the central range. . Communication between departments by associationable workers (not manual laborers). vi. Formal communication way out up the hierarchy. in all these are associated with the two cultures and so Sainsbury cant be defined to one group. Since Human culture is a mixture of hundreds of separate culture trying to produce the best of all words. In my opinion Sainsburys would more suite the Role culture since the formal structure also stresss this by augmenting a rigid structure you add a formality quality or a freedom associated with the person, and then the job is more than the employee, which is the role culture.These two also dictate the vigilance style because Role culture has important job. There is communication with the job not the person, this is autocratic because the person has no say. The structure means there is a formality also so Sainsbury is a formal business and this means all jobs are done in formal and this should increase production by having immediate workers who dont have to think. All the difference influences each other because they all have an effect on certain aspects of the company. They all knock on to each other and garble the finer points of each.Tesco organizational culture Tescos corporate culture can be determined from its corporate responsibility statements, which describe its core values and core ideologies as closely as some aspects of cultural artifacts. Tescos stated core priorities include i. Ensuring community, corporate responsibility and sustainability are at the heart of our business. ii. Being a good neighbor and being responsible, moderately and honest. iii. Considering our social, econom ic and environmental impact as we make our decisions. (Tesco, 2008) These values have had a significant impact on the way in which Tesco does business, as well as its inancial performance. For example, its expansion into California was designed to be not only profitable, but also socially responsible. As in the joined Kingdom, American inner cities have a food supply problem wherein there are few large supermarkets and the smaller supermarkets do not have an adequate supply of fresh foods, including fruits, vegetables and proteins. How the relationships structure and culture can impact Sainsbury and Tescos performance Tescos organisational structure is a hierarchical structure.In a hierarchical structure the communication can be distorted as messages pass from one level to another means that the staff at the bottom level receive a slightly a different message than the message they intent to receive it. some peoples have to be consulted before a decision is made so the company is sl ow in responding to changes and challenges. This means they cannot provides quick services to their customers and it is going to affect in terms of sales and profit but there is an advantage that if everybody is consulted they will come out with the best results.In hierarchical structure there are specific functional areas and job roles. The employees can be easily identified and given training so they can provide good services to their customers. Hierarchical structure has good delegations because they are many peoples with specialised skills are working here so they can easily assign their subordinates for a particular task. The span of control is less than the flat structures. In hierarchical structures they have good promotion prospectus so the staff are instigated and they provides good services to their customers.I think that the impact of the organizational structure has an excellent impact on Sainsbury due to the staff of Sainsbury working hard and being highly motivated i n the work that they do, and the customer service that they provide for the customers that shop at Sainsbury. This is due to the human resources function of Sainsbury recruiting staff that they feel is suitable to work at Sainsbury, this could be due to the experience, qualifications, and availability of the member of staff working at Sainsbury.The finance function helps Sainsbury by the accountants keeping accounts up to date, this is an advantage because this has an impact on Sainsbury by enabling it to see if the financial factors of Sainsbury are improving or declining, and if new targets should be set, and if new objectives should be made. The marketing function has an impact on Sainsbury by the way that it helps the supermarket grow bigger by the advertisement campaigns it launches to make potential customers of Sainsbury notice what Sainsbury has to offer them. Task2 Understand different nuzzlees to prudence and leaders. P2. study the effectiveness of different leadership style in different organizations. In the beneath we discuss about various type of management style Scientific management According to Fredrick Winslow Taylor, Scientific management means keen exactly what you insufficiency men to do and seeing that they do it in the best and the cheapest way. Classical administration Henri Fayol was a French industrialist, according to him, the idea that all organizations could be structured managed according to certain rational principle. bureaucratism An organization structured on classical lines is often identified as a bureaucracy.Human relations apostrophize The human relations approach emphasised the importance of human attitudes, values and relationships for the efficient and effective function of work organizations. Systems approach Systems approach described as which consists of interdependent parts. either system has a boundary which defines what it is inside what is external the system. Contingency approach The contingency approa ch to organization developed as a reply to the idea that there are universal principles for designing organization, motivating staff and others.In the below we discuss about some function of management Planning This essentially means looking to the future. It involves selecting the ends which the organization wishes to achieve. Organizing The work to be done must be divided and structured into task and jobs. peremptory Fayol called this maintaining activity among the personal. Co-ordination this is the task of harmonizing the activities of individuals and groups within the organization. Controlling This is the task of monitoring the activities of individual and groups. P2. Explain how organizational conjecture underpins the practice of management In the below we discuss about various managerial role interpersonal Roles Interpersonal roles process and outlined three basic roles. Those are i. Figurehead. ii. Leader. iii. Liaison. Informational role A manager is likely to have a wi der network of contacts within and outside the organization than his subordinates. So he is the best parson to gather and spread information. Decisional roles The managers formal authority and access to information put him in a strong position to take decisions.In the below we discuss about nature of managerial authority Power Power is the ability to do something or get others to do it. warrant Authority is the right to do something or to get others to do it. responsibility Responsibility is the liability of a person to be called to account for the way he was exercised the authority given to him. Delegation Delegation is the process whereby superior A gives subordinate B authority over a defined area which falls within the scope of As own authority. P2. 3 Evaluate the different approaches to management used by different organizations. expedient The self-seeker action-logic is aimed at controlling their environment in order to survive. typically development has been blocked by a l egacy of mistrust, egocentrism and manipulativeness. The ennoble for this action-logic denotes a tendency to focus on personal wins and to see relationships as opportunities to be exploited. From the opportunist action-logic, the world is highly competitive. Only the fittest individuals survive and, since the opportunist assumes everybody else is also operating from this frame of reference, competition rather than collaboration is the only viable course of action.Diplomat Moving away from the anything-goes-that- officiates-me framework of the Opportunist, Diplomats are aware of group enduringness over individual power. Thus, they seek to die to established groups which may be based on kinship, club, church or profession. Since power comes from affiliation with others, rules and social norms are followed to seek approval and guard duty status as a group member. Achiever Leaders who have developed this action-logic can be both challenging and supportive, creating a domineering atm osphere both inside the team and external to the team.They represent nearly 30% of the general managerial population and are tightly cerebrate on deliverables. volume whose developmental focus is on the Achiever action-logic have a more complex and integrated understanding of the world than do managers who display the previous three action logics. Strategist At 4% of leaders, people who have developed to this action-logic are likely to be found in less conventional settings. If they have survived life in the human race service, they are likely to have developed a reputation as substituteational leaders.They distinguish themselves from Individualists through their focus on organizational constraints and perceptions, which they treat as discussible and transformable. Transformational Transformational leadership occurs when the leader and the follower elevates one another to higher(prenominal) levels of motivation and morality. Carlson (1996) points out that Burns felt that leader ship theories developed up to the seventies were lacking ethical/moral dimensions so he elaborated on his exchange theory which maintains that followers play a crucial role in the definition of leadership.This theory is made up of power relations and entails bargaining, trading and compromise among leaders and followers. Management styles and leadership used in Tescos Tescos tend to use autocratic because the company inescapably too or the e tasks wont be carried out within the business, also decisions need to be made quickly or they wont be done for example a task that is set for a shelf filler to put the milk out but hasnt been told to put the milk out because the management are still deciding whos going to put what out, so the milk would be still sat in the storage room and the customers cant vitiate it.So if the management didnt use autocratic then Tescos wouldnt be run sufficiently. Tesco also uses management by objectives. They use this because they state to each employee in their approximations what their objectives are for a certain period. in any case each manager is set objectives by their line manager for their team for example the sales teams objective that has been set is to increase the amount of customers using Tesco by 25%. The way in which Tesco is structured and managed. (Management at Tesco. 123HelpMe. com. 05 Jan 2012 . )Management styles and leadership used in Sainsburys If a company adopts the consultative style, then the person may well set the objectives and this would mean a lesser extent of pushing to achieve objectives. In my opinion Sainsbury uses a mixture of two types of management style. premier(prenominal) being autocratic means the objectives would be set up and to a good standard they will want the most work out of their subordinates, to gain maximum value. For the key areas of operations Sainsbury is using autocratic management style, for setting its objectives, policies at top management level. They also use pop manag ement style.These would be set to gain maximum revenue they would want this and strive to get this because this style is associated with the managerial levels and will mean they get bonuses. For overall working of the organization at middle management levels and lower management levels, the style of Sainsbury is democratic, because the area of operations is widely decentralized and for the slaying of policies in three different segments, policies should be consulted with the local personal, which are specially appointed for this purpose. As they know the inner constraints, strengths of that particular segment.Task3 Understand ways of using motivational theories in organization. P3. 1 Discuss the impact that different leadership styles may have on motivation in organizations in periods of change. Maslows Hierarchy of needfully The basis of Maslows theory of motivation is that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied necessitate, and that certain lower needfully need to be satisfi ed before higher necessarily can be addressed. Per the teachings of Abraham Maslow, there are general necessitate (physiological, guard duty, love, and hatch) which have to be fulfilled before a person is able to act unselfishly.These demand were dubbed deficiency needs. sequence a person is motivated to fulfill these primary desires, they continue to move toward growth, and eventually self-actualization. The satisfaction of these needs is quite healthy. While preventing their gratification makes us ill or act evilly. Maslows Hierarchy of ask Chart As a result, for adequate study motivation, it is important that leadership understands which needs are active for individual employee motivation. In this regard, Abraham Maslows model indicates that basic, low-level needs such as physiological requirements and safety must be atisfied before higher-level needs such as self-fulfillment are pursued. As depicted in this hierarchical diagram, sometimes called Maslows demand Pyrami d or Maslows Needs Triangle, when a need is satisfied it no longer motivates and the next higher need takes its place. Herzbergs theory Hygiene Factors Hygiene factors are based on the need to for a business to avoid unpleasantness at work. If these factors are considered inadequate by employees, then they can cause dissatisfaction with work. Hygiene factors include Company policy and administration Wages, salaries and other financial remuneration tint of supervision Quality of inter-personal relations Working conditions Feelings of job security inducing Factors Motivator factors are based on an individuals need for personal growth. When they exist, motivator factors actively create job satisfaction. If they are effective, then they can motivate an individual to achieve above-average performance and effort. Motivator factors include Status opportunity for advancement Gaining realization Responsibility Challenging / stimulating work backbone of personal achievement & personal growth in a job McGregors theory X and Y system X possibility X assumes that the average person Dislikes work and attempts to avoid it. Has no ambition, wants no responsibility, and would rather follow than lead. Is self-centered and therefore does not care about organizational goals. Resists change. Is gullible and not particularly intelligent. Essentially, hypothesis X assumes that people work only for money and security. Theory Y The higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization are continuing needs in that they are never all satisfied.As such, it is these higher-level needs through which employees can best be motivated. Theory Y makes the following general assumptions Work can be as natural as play and rest. People will be self-governing to meet their work objectives if they are committed to them. People will be committed to their objectives if rewards are in place that address higher needs such as self-fulfillment. Under these conditions, people will seek resp onsibility. nearly people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in the population.Vroom and Expectancy theories Essentially, expectancy theory states that the strength of an individuals motivation to do something will depend on the extent to which he expects the result of his efforts, if successfully achieved, to contribute towards his personal needs or goals. Maccoby, Mccrac and costa There is relative consensus on a v-factor structure of personality, based on a bipolar taxonomy of underlying traits, which is supported by factor analyses of extensive lists of trait adjectives.The five broad personality dimensions are commonly labeled extraversion, conscientiousness, breakableness, emotional stability, and openness. It should be noted that these dimensions are not types, meaning that personality is made up of scores on the five dimensions. Motivation and performance Motivation, as it most nearly concerns the manager, is the controlling of the work environment and the offering of rewards in such a way as to encourage extra performance from employees. Rewards and incentives A reward is a figure ( financial or otherwise) given to an individual or team in recognition of some contribution or success.An incentive is the offer or promise of a reward for contribution or success, designed to motivate the individual or team to behave in such a way as to earn it. Motivation and manager Managers are constantly searching for ways to create a motivational environment where associates (employees) to work at their optimal levels to accomplish company objectives. Workplace motivators include both monetary and non-monetary incentives. Monetary and Non-monetary rewards The purpose of monetary incentives is to reward associates for excellent job performance through money.Monetary incentives include profit sharing, project bonuses, stock options and warrants, schedule bonuses (e. g. , Christmas and performance-linked), and additional paid vacati on time. Traditionally, these have helped maintain a prescribed motivational environment for associate. The purpose of non-monetary incentives is to reward associates for excellent job performance through opportunities. Non-monetary incentives include flexible work hours, training, pleasant work environment, and sabbaticals. P3. 2 Compare the application of different motivational theories within the work place.Leadership in organization This definition is similar to Northouses (2007, p3) definition Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal. Managers and leaders Influence is the process by which an individual or group exercises power to determine or modify the behavior of others. Leadership traits People who believe that leaders are born are likely to buy into the Traits Theory. This theory basically centers itself on the leader. What are the qualities of a leader? instantaneously if you look at the different leaders o f the world, companies or armies they all carry certain traits.It is believed that if one carries these characteristics then one is likely to become a leader. So, this theory defines what are the qualities that a leader should posses rather than leadership. If one is a leader then these leadership traits should be present. Management style Managers have to perform many roles in an organization and how they handle various situations will depend on their style of management. There are two sharp contrasting styles that will be broken down into smaller subsets afterwards oAutocratic o bailable Each style has its own characteristicsAutocratic Leader makes all decisions unilaterally. Permissive Leader permits subordinates to take part in decision making and also gives them a considerable degree of autonomy in completing deed work activities. Contingency approach The Contingency Theory takes in experimental condition the weaknesses of the previous theories. Since leadership functions in a dynamic situation, it is only logical that different styles and traits will work in different situations. The Contingency Theory takes into consideration the context where leadership is exercised. P3. 3 Evaluate the usefulness of a Motivation theory for managers.Leadership and successful change in organizations pluralistic inclusive enough consistent with the needs of pluralistic leadership. Such organizations emphasize hierarchy, authority and structure over participation and inclusiveness. Pluralistic leadership results in diversity and diversity results in pluralistic leadership (Bass, 1990 Millman and Kanter, 1986). Pluralistic leadership is very consistent with notions of participation of all in the leadership decisions and the understanding of multiple perspectives within the organization and outside it (Kezar, 2000).Transformational It depends on two main points of view The theoretical, and The applied Theoretical definitions come from those that study leadership, who ha ve the formal qualifications to write long dissertations on the subject. This body of knowledge is fantastic for creation in the subject and to get into the depth of the potential implications, especially when it comes to the ethics and ethics department. The applied is the interpretation, and then applied action in a specific field of endeavor. Well use the personal, organizational, and global contexts for this purpose.You will have your own applied experience, or not, depending on where you are on your own personal Transformational Leadership journey. Communications The closest definition of a communication leader is Gramscis definition of the organic intellectual which Gramsci essentially sees as a leader. Gramsci sees in the intellectual not only as a leader but also as a poet, thinker, reader and activist. Sainsburys motivational theories Sainsbury agree that employees are their most important assets and need to be tough fairly.The good performance of employees management s has an effect on the organizations success, in terms of profitability. Sainsbury give out financial rewords to most people who complete the training programme. Training is designed to keep employees motivated and is positive(p) to complete their training by rewarding them with financial gain. Motivation comprises of the need for employees and controls their action. Using motivation techniques can improve productivity and customer service. Also employee satisfaction leads to good service that leads to customer satisfaction.Maslows- Hierarchy of needs This theory is based on meeting staff needs with in the workplace and suggests that meeting their needs can lead to be fill are Self- fulfillment- researching your full potential Self-esteem needs- status and recognition, achievement and independence affectionate needs- love, friendship, a sense of belonging part of a team base hit needs- protection against danger, fair treatment, job security Physiological needs- food, rest and en tertain Mc Gregor- Theory x and theory y They are two types of main types of managers.Theory x managers tend to have the point of view that the average dislikes and will try to avoid it. Therefore the managers must control direct and punish them to get them to work towards business objectives. Theory y suggests that the ordinary person does not dislike work it all depends on the conditions in which the work takes place. If people are committed to objectives, they will be motivated towards achieving them the biggest motivation factor is the personal satisfaction of completing the job. (A Report on Sainsburys Resource Management. 123HelpMe. com. 5 Jan 2012 . Tesco motivational theories Tesco is Britains largest retailer. It now has over 2,200 stores. As well as food, it also sells other products such as insurance and banking. To support growth, Tesco needs staffs who are motivated. It achieves this by change magnitude their knowledge, skills and job satisfaction through training and reward systems. Needs Self-fulfill Tesco offers Personal Development Plans, recognition of skills and talents, opportunity for promotion and career progression programmed. course discussions feed into Tescos Talent Planning meetings.The Options fast-track management programmed provides a street for capable staff to reach higher levels. Self-esteem Tesco values emphasize self-respect and respect for others and praise for hard work, its self assessment, 360 degree feedback and appraisal system help to recognize individuals contributions and importance and celebrate achievement. Social needs Tesco promotes team and group working at various levels The Company channelize Wheel assesses individual and group work and enables store staff to work as a team. Working conditions and a home-from-home ethos encourages long service. Basic/ animal(prenominal) needsSecurity needs Tesco provides the security of formal contracts of employment as well as pension and sickness schemes and the option to join a union to give people a sense of belonging. It ensures health and safety in the workplace. Basic/physical needs This would include a place of work, regular monthly pay and essential facilities such as a restaurant or lockers for personal belongings. Tesco provides motivation for its staff through many different routes. Reviews and personal development plans ensure that employees are able to develop and grow. This benefits both staff and the business. (The Times coke Edition 15 www. hetimes100. co. uk) magnetic declination Task 4 Understand mechanisms for ontogenesis effective teamwork in organizations. P4. 1 Explain the nature of groups and group behavior within organizations. Groups Groups in business organizations are, in effect, sub-organizations and they require management for controlled performance of collective goals, not only their own collective goals, but those of the business organization as a whole. Definition of group is A group is any collection of people wh o perceive them to be a group. Informal group and formal group Informal groups will invariably be present in any organization.Informal groups include workplace cliques and networks of people who regularly get together to exchange information, groups of mates who socialize outside work and so on. Formal groups, put together by the organization, will have formal structure and a function for which they are held responsible, they are task oriented and become teams. Team A team is a formal group established to achieve particular objectives. Purpose of teams i. Team allows the performance of tasks. ii. Team encourages exchange of knowledge and ideas or creation of new ideas. iii. The power of the team over individual behavior can be both control and motivator.Selecting team members A manager is able to select team members, he or she shuld aim to match some requirement i. Specialist skills and knowledge. ii. Experience. iii. political power in the organization. iv. Access to resources, v. Competence. Team roles RM Bellbin researched business-game teams at the Carnegie Institute of technology. He developed a picture of the character-mix in team, which many people fine a useful guide to team selection and management. Bellbin suggests effective team is made following eight roles i. The Co-coordinator. ii. The shaper. iii. The plant. iv The monitor and evaluator. . The resource investigator. vi. The implementer. vii. The team worker. Viii. The finisher. Multi-disciplinary teams Multi-disciplinary teams bring together individuals with different skills and specialisms, so that their skills, experience and knowledge can be pooled or exchanged. Teambuilding The team building goal in this learning journey is to help participants develop increased awareness of team dynamics, practical skills for maximizing team performance, and developing a belief in the power of teamwork. Team building assists participants in planning specific improvements in the way the team operates.Partici pants will gain an integrated set of skills that can be applied anytime and anywhere, while enhancing their team performance, leadership abilities, and team unity. The result of applying these skills will be serious TEAMWORK not teamwork in the ordinary sense, but something stronger, more committed, more productive, and more personal. Team identity A manager may be able to increase his work groups sense of itself as a team by any or all the following means i. good-looking the team a name. ii. Giving team a badge or uniform. iii. Expressing the teams self-image. iv. Building a team mythology.Commitment to shared belief All team members must agree on what the team is trying to accomplish. Teams work much harder if members have a say in team goals and focus. Having team members discuss and decide on team goals would foster this sense of team commitment. P4. 2 Discuss factors that may promote or inhabit the development of effective teamwork in organizations. Group norms The rules of b ehavior that are part of the ideology of the group. Norms tend to reflect the values of the group and specify those actions that are proper and those that are inappropriate, as well as rewards for adherence and the punishment for conformity.Group decision-making behavior As we noted, empowerment involves groups in decision-making. This can be having benefited where i. Pooling skills, information and ideas. ii. Participation in the decision-making process makes the discussion acceptable of the group. Dysfunctional team Dysfunctional is defined as abnormal or unhealthy interpersonal behavior or interaction within a group. Most definitions state that a team is dysfunctional when individuals strive to conform to the prevailing thought processes or decisions within the group, at the expense of feelings of individual responsibility or personal views. viscidity Cohesiveness is generally defined as the resultant of all forces playing on all the members to remain in the group (Cartwright, 1968, p. 91). Group gumminess is one of the essential concepts for understanding group dynamics (Zander, 1979) studied for its abstract similarity with teamwork. P4. 3 Evaluate the impact of technology on team functioning within a given organization. Technology Technology teams share a common goal all members are dedicated to aid paternity project site leadership meet local needs and priorities through the wise integration and implementation of technology.But while these tech teams generally have a similar purpose, the ways in which writing project sites have gone about establishing and using their technology teams are as nuanced as the sites themselves. Communication One way to start developing a communications strategy is to look at the nature of the different kinds of work the team will be doing and what kind of communication is needed to support that work. There is a continuum which describes how individuals (or sub-groups) on the team are working from autonomously to interd ependently.For example, there may be some tasks unique to a specific country which team members can do on their own without interacting with anyone else on the team. Other product-related projects may require more collaboration among team members in different parts of the region. Change All these changes in organizations have changed how teams are formed and how they operate. Teams have changed From fixed team membership all team members drawn from within the organization team members are dedicated 100% to the team team members are co-located organizationally and geographically teams have a fixed starting and ending point eams are managed by a single manager To shifting team membership team members can include people from outside the organization (clients, collaborators) most people are members of multiple teams team members are distributed organizationally and geographically teams form and refine continuously teams have multiple reporting relationships with different parts of the organization at different times Network and virtual teams The nature of teams has changed significantly because of changes in organizations and the nature of the work they do. Organizations have become more distributed across geography and across industries.Relationships between people inside an organization and those antecedently considered outside (customers, suppliers, managers of collaborating organizations, other stakeholders) are becoming more important. Organizations have detect the value of collaborative work. There is a new emphasis on knowledge management harvesting the learning of the experience of members of the organization so that it is available to the whole organization. Global and cross-culture teams Cross-cultural training usually occurs as an integral component of training thats designed in the beginning to attain a broader objective.Two of GROVEWELLs Global Leadership Programs provide examples. Influencing Colleagues across Organizational Units & Mindsets is primarily about influencing colleagues within global organizations, but is infused with the intercultural perspective. Working Effectively on International Projects is primarily for the managers and staff of global projects it, too, is infused with the intercultural perspective. Effective teamwork in Sainsbury General theories of work design suggest that groups can humanize work with group tasks designed to create meaningful work.Team working is associated with higher job satisfaction according to job characteristics and participative management theories. The variety of tasks in teams encourages workers to learn and use different skills and rotate between jobs to reduce the boredom of repetitive work. This enables team members to share a sense of collective responsibility for work in their area and to develop the mix of skills necessary for effective work teams who share both identification with a common task and mutual beliefs. Teams also make possible employee participation in g oal setting, thereby enhancing intrinsic motivation for team members. www. sainsburys. co. uk J Sainsbury plc Annual Report and pecuniary Statements 2005 accessed through www. sainsburys. co. uk) Effective teamwork in Tesco We treat people how we like to be treated. We want our people to enjoy working at Tesco. Our people do a great job each and every day by giving our customers the best possible shopping trip. By creating an open environment of trust and respect, our people feel supported, they share their knowledge and experience and work hard to give our customers great service.We support our people, trusting in their ability to deliver while helping them to reach their full potential. We encourage our people to learn on the job and take responsibility from day one. Giving our people an opportunity to get on in their careers is very important. With the change magnitude breadth of the Tesco business, our people have a great opportunity to develop their skills and experience acro ss new product areas, services and countries. Every year, we build our plans for the year around our People Promises.We want all of our people across all of our markets to be treated with respect have an opportunity to get on have a manager who helps them and have an interesting job. Its through our People Promises and our benefits package that we are proud to say that our people stay with us for a long time. Around half of our film director population has at least 12 years service. Effective teamwork in Asda Asda changes Norman outlines in the way people work together and turn over with each other are more complex.The companys goal is to become a genuine leader in fresh foods and clothing making the George dishonor a real brand, second in the UK to Marks & Spencers St Michael and also to create an organization which is the preferred place to work, offering customer service with a personality derived from the heart of the company. One change has, accordingly, been in the approach to recruitment, which now aims to seek out people for the stores who really do want to serve the customers and who genuinely like selling. There is no point, he remarks, in employing people who wont like the Asda Way of Working.This is the name given to the new approach, intended to transform the old culture, which had grown autocratic and slow-moving, to one where all members of Asda feel involved in improving the business the equivalent, within the context of a corporation, of market-stallholders, who run their own show, and who engage actively with their customers. (http//www. managementtoday. co. uk/news/410110/UK-ASDAS-OPEN-PLAN Bibliography Reference 1. HNC, HND BTEC Business execute Book, Organization behavior, Unit-3, first edition September 2000, publishing BPP, ISBN 0 7517 70337.

Paraoxonase Status In Keratoconus Patients Health And Social Care Essay

Keratoconus ( KC ) is a noninflammatory corneal ectasis which normally affects both eyes and with an incidence of close 1 per 2,000 in the general people ( Rabinowitz, 1998 ) , KC is going a significationant clinical job worldwide ( Zadnik et al, 1996 ) . The authoritative histodiseased characteristics of KC involve stromal cutting, Fe deposition in the epithelial cellphonear membrane and interruptions in the Bowman s bed ( Rabinowitz, 1998 ) . KC is a heterogeneous malady, with some(prenominal)(prenominal) indicants of familial factors lending to the pathogenesis of stray KC such(prenominal) as gemination surveies, bilateralism of the disease, familial collection and formal familial analyses ( Rabinowitz, 2003 ) . However, the function of environmental factors such as oculus friction and difficult contact electron lens wear may besides lend to the patterned advance of the disease in genetically susceptible whateverones ( Rabinowitz, 1998 ) . Although really small is known well-nigh the mechanisms taking to ectasia in KC, the current hypothesis is that the cutting of the cornea is ascribable to abnormalcy in the collagen cross-linking and subsequent stromal thinning which leads to bulge of the cornea ( Li et al, 2007 ) . sepa outrank research lab surveies have besides indicated the degree alterations of transforming growing factor-I?2 and antioxidant enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases, cathepsin V/L2 and tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinases ( TIMPs ) in the eyes of KC affected roles ( Maier et al, 2007 Kenney et Al, 2005 ) . An another(prenominal) strong hypothesis of the teaching of KC was put frontward ( Wilson et al, 1996 ) who pointed issue the function of the interleukin-1 system and other programmed cell death modulating systems which contri scarcelyes to loss of keratocytes and finally stromal cutting. However, all of these suggested hypotheses need to be to a greater extent clearly defined ( Rabinowitz, 1998 ) .Paraoxona se 1 ( PON1 ) is an enzyme do up of 354 aminic acids with a entire molecular weight of 43 kDa ( Primo-Parma et Al, 1996 Mackness et Al, 1996 ) . PON1, which is associated with high-density lipoprotein ( HDL ) , catalyses the dislocation of phospho lipid and cholesteryl-ester lipid peroxides in both low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) and HDL, wherefore doing it an of merchandise bump factor of artherosclerosis ( Mackness et al, 2004 ) . However, it was the ability of PON1 to protect the nervous system against organophosphate neurotoxicity that was first-year off find ( Durrington et al, 2001 ) . The clement PON1 crypto graphy sequence, located on the long arm of the human chromosome 7 ( q21.22 ) has two common polymorphism sites a Met ( M ) / Leu ( L ) permutation site at place 55 and a Gln ( Q ) / Arg ( R ) site at place 192, with the latter being more of import with respects to PON1 activity and affinity to certain subst grade ( Primo-Parma et Al, 1996 Aviram, 2004 ) . He nce, the finding of the PON1 position of an person must non merely take into history the polymorphism nowadays just now besides the degree of PON1 activity in that person in orderliness to find the plasma PON1192 alloform responsible for the activity nowadays. This can be through with(p) utilizing a two-substrate enzymic check affecting two PON1 substrates ( normally paraoxon and diazoxon ) . Abnormalities between PON1 available position and genotyping at place 192 can therefore bespeak fluctuation at other points in the PON1 cistron ( Richter et al, 2004 ) . As there are m any factors which modulates the PON1 activity such as physiological factors ( eg. exercising ) , pathological factors ( eg. viral/bacterial infection, redness, diabetes ) , diet, alcohol ingestion and certain drugs ( eg. lipid-lowering lipid-lowering medicines ) , therefore is it of import to see these factors when finding of PON1 activity ( Aviram, 2004 ) . PON1 has been shown to hold antioxidant belongin gss against oxidative emphasis ( Senti et al, 2003 ) , spot oxidative emphasis has been associated with KC ( Kenney et al, 2005 ) . thitherfore, PON1 may demo a overprotective function in the development of KC.OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYAlthough there have been studies of KC growing in babies and besides in persons every bit tardily as the age of 51 old ages, bulk of KC patients develop this berth between the ages of 12 to 20 old ages ( Hall KCG, 1963 ) , which is around the oncoming of pubescence. It could be truly lay waste toing for one to develop such a status at that point in life, when 1 is sleek over immature and motivated. In Malaysia, the prevalence of KC may look to be of less important with studies of approximately 4 in 1169 ( 0.3 % ) in a population of oculus patients in an urban country and besides 0.3 % among school-aged kids ( Reddy SC et Al, 2008 Goh PP et Al, 2005 ) . However, due to the hard nature of naming KC in its developmental phases, many instances frequen tly go undetected until after multiple ailments from the patient and thorough synopsis of the patient s vision sharp-sightedness political campaign consequences ( Benjamin WJ, 2006 ) . Therefore, the prevalence of KC in the general Malaysian population could be much higher than reported. As KC is reported as among the pilfer five treatable causes of sightlessness and terrible visual damage in kids in Malaysia ( Reddy SC, 2001 ) , therefore more attempt should be carried out to architectural plan an effectual and accurate sensing assay utilizing the promotions of molecular medical force to supply early intervention to these persons before the status worsens. Therefore, this brings to the aims of this survey, which are as followTo find PON1 activity in KC patients and to compare with non-KC controls.To find the position of PON1 in plasma samples of KC and non-KC patients.To place forecasters of KC from the collect infos by utilizing univariate and logistic arrested development abbreviation.MATERIALS AND METHODSPreparations prior to informations and sample aggregationIn order to find out blood samples and informations from musicians, a two-day information and sample aggregation issuance was organised. The event was held on the 22 23th May 2010 at Ophir Eye Clinic and Surgery. Prior to the event, readyings were made such as boxing a 21G acerate leaf, a useable syringe, intoxicant swab, Elastoplast, a 6mL EDTA ( purple-top ) tubing, a 6mL Li Lipo-Hepin ( green-top ) tubing and some sweet into a fictile bag for all(prenominal) participants.Data and sample aggregationEach participant was foremost given a brief account of the survey which they were travel to take portion in and were asked to make full in an conscious consent signifier before finishing the Keratoconus in the Malayan universe of discourse Pathophysiological and Familial Surveies questionnaire signifier prepared by Shalini Arjunan, Prof Mary Anne, Dr Rozaida and Dr Jenny. Next, the pa rticipants spectacle powers were examined utilizing an auto-refractometer. tune samples ( 5mL ) were so collected in the Li Lipo-Hepin ( green-top ) tubings from the participants of the survey and stored at 4AC if can non be processed instantly. Blood samples were processed within the twenty-four hours. After that, each participant was examined utilizing a keratometer and a Pentacam to convey their K-readings and corneal topography severally. Then, each participant was compulsory to undergo a ocular sharp-sightedness trial and a biomicroscopy trial utilizing Snellen s chart and Haag-Streit ding Lamp severally. Finally, each participant s trial readings were reviewed by Dr. Jenny P. Deva, consultant Ophthalmologist and Refractive Surgeon at Tun Hussein Onn Eye hospital and the diagnosing of each participant was confirmed.Preparation of plasma samplesAfter aggregation, the blood samples were centrifuged at d xg for 5 proceedingss at room temperature ( 25AC ) to divide the pla sma. Plasma ( top bed ) was so be carefully aliquoted in 500AL batches into a few microcentrifuge tubings ( 1.5mL ) utilizing Pasteur pipettes depending on the sum of plasma available. All micro-centrifuge tubings were labelled and stored at -70AC until activity measuring was carried out.Two-substrate enzyme analysisThis survey was carried out by finding the position of Paraoxonase 1 in the plasma samples of the participants based on the two-substrate enzyme analysis as described by Richter RJ et Al, 2004, with little alterations. The rate of hydrolysis of the two substrates, which were Paraoxon and Diazoxon were calculated utilizing Lamda 25 UV/VIS Spectrophotometer running KINLAB version 2.85.00. After blending with the several substrates for a few seconds, the rate of paraoxon and diazoxon hydrolysis were monitored continuously for two proceedingss. The initial rates of each sample were so multiplied by the deliberate conversion factor, which was 5611 and 67000 to acquire parao xonase and diazoxonase activity severally in U/L unit.Activity analysis utilizing SPSSThe paraoxonase and diazoxonase activities of each sample together with other informations from the questionnaire done by Shalini Arjunan and genetic constitution informations done by Yvonne Yong were so pooled together into SPSS version 17.0 for farther analysis. Trials which were carried out include age and sex demographic distribution, independent t-test, Pearson s Correlation, blossom out of sight plan, Kruskal-Wallis trial, one-way ANOVA, etc.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONFor this survey, a population of 66 participants were successfully identified, consisting of 9 keratoconus patients ( 13.6 % ) , 2 forme fruste keratoconus patients ( 3.0 % ) , 9 high inadequate patients ( 13.6 % ) , 11 moderate myopic patients ( 16.7 % ) and 35 normal controls ( 53.0 % ) . This population, dwelling of 27 Malays ( 40.9 % ) , 9 Chinese ( 13.6 % ) and 30 Indians ( 45.5 % ) had an age scope of 7 to 68 old ages old. T here were middling more males than females in this population, that is 35 ( 53 % ) to 31 ( 47 % ) participants. There were undistinguished dispute of ages among both genders and besides the cultural groups.Exploratory informations analysis on this sample population revealed that the distribution of the paraoxonase activity and age of the participants were non distributed usually, adult a p-value of 0.019 and 0.025 severally when utilizing the Shapiro-Wilk trial. Merely diazoxonase activity gave a undistinguished p-value ( 0.446 ) , therefore bespeaking a normal distribution. It was of import to transport out such trials foremost to find whether a parametric or nonparametric trial should be used for analysis.The activity of Paraoxonase 1 was successfully determined by mensurating the rate of hydrolysis of paraoxon and diazoxon substrate, harmonizing to the method used in Richter RJ et Al ( 2004 ) , with some minor accommodations. With these informations, the phenotype of each part icipant was successfully identified by plotting a spread graph of diazoxonase activity against paraoxonase activity, to distinguish the persons with functionally homozygous for PON1192Q, heterozygotes for PON1Q/R192Q/R and homozygous for PON1192R. These phenotype information was subsequently confirmed with informations from my co-worker, Yvonne who carried out Paraoxonase 1 genotyping for polymorphism 192QR by limit enzyme digestion. Both informations from Paraoxonase 1 activity finding and Paraoxonase 1 genotyping were found to be coincident and accurate.When these participants were divided harmonizing to familial relation to the KC patients, 18 were first degree relations to the KC patients, 3 were 2nd degree relations and 20 had no blood dealingss to the patients, while 16 were omitted as they did non outfit the standards for normal healthy controls. Based on such classs, it was found that KC patients and relations may hold a important difference in paraoxonase activity when gr oups together against the normal controls with a p-value of 0.057. However, this value is non important green goddess to reason a possible correlativity and may necessitate more KC to make a important degree. This was non the instance for diazoxonase activity when compared in similar mode, where the activity in KC patients and comparative were non significantly variant from that of normal controls.The most important consequences of this survey nevertheless, were obtained when KC patients, including forme fruste KC patients were compared against the other participants, labelled non-KC. When categorised as such, the paraoxonase activity of KC patients were significantly difference than that of the non-KC participants ( p-value = 0.022 ) . This indicates that paraoxonase activity may hold a function in the development of KC patients. However, different cultural groups besides showed important difference in paraoxonase activity when tested, viz. between Malays and Indians and this may lend as an covert in factor since many of the KC patients where Indians. Hence, comparing surveies between KC/non-KC position and cultural groups must be carried out to find any relation between the two variables.DecisionThe paraoxonase and diazoxonase activity of each participant were successfully and accurately measured. Based on genotype informations from my co-worker Yvonne, the phenotype informations obtained from the diazoxonase paraoxonase spread secret plan was rather dependable. There were important happening which relates paraoxonase activities with KC/non-KC position, but it may be due to an underlying factor such as cultural group. Further statistical analysis and re-definition will be required to obtain more important informations.

Essay of Ancient China

Ancient mainland china In antique Chinese cosmology, the universe was created non by divinities exclusively self-generated from the inter receive of spirits basic duality the active, light, dry, w lace, positive, masculine yang and the passive, dark, c gray-h line of credited, moist, ban yin. All things, animate and inanimate, and wholly circumstances were a combination of these fundamentals. The supreme principle of the universe was the tao, the way, and it see to itd the appropriate proportions of yin and yang in every(prenominal)thing. Anything that altered the inhering relation of yin to yang was considered bad, and right droppingseon consisted of carefully fol razes the tao.If unitary spy the tao by moderation, equanimity, and morality, as taught in the Tao-te Ching, by Lao-tzu (sixth degree centigrade B. C. ), unity would be impervious to illness and resistant to the ravages of aging fire of the tao lead to un live onness, which was non so or so(preno minal) a punishment for nefariousness as the ineluctable result of playing contrary to natural laws. However, illness withal could be fontd by forces beyond one(a)s withstand Wind is the cause of a light speed diseases, and atmospheric conditions could up habilitate the harmonious inner residue of the yang and yin. one(a) had to be jolly to this possibility and struggle its effects as fountainhead as switch sexual imbalances of the vital forces. Longevity and health were the rewards. Chinese checkup exam specialty, in unify with Taoism, was foc employ on the pr tear follow throughtion of illness for, as the know hummingng Ti, gravel of Chinese send of care for, observed, the superior physician helps onward the proto(prenominal) budding of disease. Although Taoist hygiene c tot in steally(prenominal)yed for temperance and simplicity in considerably things, sexual mores were regulariseed by the yin-yang aspect of Chinese philosophy.Ejaculation in int ercourse led to diminution of a mans yang, which, of course, upset the inner balance of his nature. On the former(a) hand, one was alter by absorption of the yin released by the orgasm of ones pistil novel deductnerunless she was everyplace thirty, the point where female essence lost its efficacy. The tao was main(prenominal) in Confucianism overly, as the path of virtuous conduct, and for centuries the precepts of Confucius (Kung Fu-tzu, 550-479 B. C. ) set the comfortably-nigh customary standards of behavior. In former(a) Chinese philosophy, on that point was a cardinaldency to don and combine aspects of all religions and to make way for new ideas.Nevertheless, the antiquated Chinese were profoundly standpat(prenominal) once an institution, custom, philosophy, mode of dress, or even a furniture bearing was firmly complete, and it remained relatively unchanged over centuries. As Confucius tell rumple in the same places where our fathers onward us hand ga thered arrange the same ceremonies which they to begin with us subscribe performed play the same music which they before us gather in played deliver respect to those whom they honored love those who were dear to them. Although ancient Chinas phylogeny was relatively isolated, there was untimely contact with India and Tibet.Buddhism came to China from India, and health check concepts and practices were an historic part of its t distri thativelyings. The gymnastic and external respiration exercises in Chinese health check method actingology in any case came from India and were closely think to the principles of Yoga and to aspects of Ayurvedic medicine. There were in like manner contacts with Southeast Asia, Persia, and the Arabic gentleman. In the support hundred B. C. , the Chinese ambassador Chang Chien spent more than a decade in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt, bringing back information on drugs, viti civilisation, and new(prenominal) theater of operationss. all over the centuries, intimacy of humoral medicine and of legion(predicate) new medicaments filtered into China. The introduction of the acquaintance of the Mediterranean world was extensively facilitated in the fifth deoxycytidine monophosphate by the expulsion and huge dispersion from Constantinople of the heretical Nestorian Christians. The m other(a) of Kublai caravansary (1216-94), founder of the Mongol dynasty, was a Nestorian and asked the Pope to s completion European check up ons to China. archaean aesculapian checkup Writings Classical Chinese medicine was ground primarily on working ascribed to three legendary emperors. The most ancient was Fu Hsi (c. 2900 B. C. , who was said to abide originated the pa kua, a symbolic representation composed of yang lines and yin lines feature in eight (pa) separate trigrams (kua) which could represent all yin-yang conditions. This outline is followed even today in the I Ching (Book of Changes), though as a mealy or supersti tious nonion in the West. Shen Nung, the Red emperor scarcelyterfly (Hung Ti), compiled the kickoff checkup herbal, the Pen-tsao (c. 2800 B. C. ), in which he reported the effects of 365 drugs, all of them per countersignally tested. One legend explains that a magic drug make his abdominal peel transparent, so he could observe the action of the numerous plants he evaluated.A nonher falsehood tells that he sheer able his abdomen and stitched in a window. Shen Nung is also said to apply drawn up the first charts on stylostixis, a checkup procedure presumably even older than the legendary emperors. The fame of Yu Hsiung (c. 2600 B. C. ), the scandalmongering emperor (Huang Ti), rests on his great checkup exam compendium, the Nei Ching (Canon of care for). Transmitted viva voce for m any(prenominal) centuries, this seminal work was possibly committed to writing by the third coulomb B. C. Its present form dates from the eighth degree Celsius A. D. when the populate extensive order was done by Wang Ping. The major portion of the Nei Ching, the Sun-Wen (Simple Questions), records the discourse of the Yellow Emperor with Chi Po, his prime minister, on virtually all phases of health and illness, including legal community and preaching. The section called Ling-Hsu (Spiritual Nucleus), deals entirely with acupuncture. Yu Hsiung also was said to be responsible for other great compendium, The Discourses of the Yellow Emperor and the Plain Girl, which thoroughly put overed the subject of sex from the Taoist point of view.Among other notability sourcelinelines for ancient medical lore, one might attend the Shih Ching (Book of Odes), which perhaps predates Homers epics, and the Lun-yu, discourses of Confucius belike written down shortly after his death, which abnormal patterns of behavior for many generations. During the long kale dynasty (c. 1050-255 B. C. ), a lengthy compilation of medical works, Institutions of eats, was accurate an d became the criterion for accompanying dynasties on the duties and organization of physicians. In the Han dynasty (206 B. C. -A. D. 20), there was a noted clinical author cryd Tsang Kung, who pioneered in the description of many diseases, including pubic louse of the stomach, aneurysm, and atrophic arthritis. Chang Chung-ching, the Chinese Hippocrates, in the third degree Celsius A. D. , wrote the classic daintyise Typhoid and other(prenominal) Fevers. Ko Hung, a famed alchemist and a careful observer, wrote treatises describing beriberi (a vitamin B deficiency), hepatitis, and plague, and gave one of the earliest reports on variola major virus As the New Year approached there was a seasonal affection in which pustules appeared on the face and broadcast rapidly all over the consistency.They looked like burns covered with gaberdine starch and improve as soon as they were broken. The majority died if not case-hardened. After recuperation purplish black scars remained. Sun Szu-miao (A. D. 581-682) wrote Chien Chin Yao Fang (A potassium amberen Remedies), which summarized in thirty volumes a great deal of the known medical get a lineing, and he headed a deputation which produced a fifty-volume collection on pathology. An extensive codification of forensic medicine, Hsi yuan Lu, was done in the Sung dynasty and became the prime source for knowledge of medical jurisprudence.Anatomy and Physiology Ideas of frame in ancient China were reached by reasoning and. by assumption sooner than dissection or direct observation. Since the doctrines of Confucius forbade encroachment of the body, it was not until the 18th century, long after Vesalius, that the Chinese began arrangingatic, direct anatomic studies. Even as late as the golf clubteenth century, in the Viceroys hospital Medical School, anatomy was taught by diagrams and artificial models rather than dissection.Physiological functions were constructed into a humoral system much like Hell enic concepts of the sixth century B. C. and Galenic views of the second century A. D. , remove that there were louver instead of quadruple necessary humors. (The number volt- bed had mystical value for the Chinese and was apply for most classifications pentad elements, five tastes, five qualities, five kinds of drugs, five interventions, five self-coloured organs, five seasons, five sensations, five colors, etc. ) The medical compendium Nei Ching express that each emotion had its seat in a contingent organ.Happiness dwelt in the heart, estimate in the spleen, sorrow in the lungs, and the liver housed anger as easily as the soul. Ideas in the Nei Ching concerning movement of the blood (All the blood is under obtain of the heart. The blood current flows continuously in a circle and neer stops. ) beget been mind to approach an understanding of its circulation antedating Harvey by thousands of geezerhood however, rough body vessels were believed to convey air, and there is little curtilage that commentators perceived the blood- broadcasting vessels as a checkered system. DiagnosisThe Chinese methods of diagnosis included questioning, perception the pulse, observing the express and body, and in few circumstances touching the affected parts. In or so all judgment of convictions and cultures physicians make up used a similar approach, for all healers create sought to know as much as affirmable about a patient in place to understand his or her illness and advise handling. However, in some consider ancient physicians truism each patient more completely as a animadversion of his surroundings (indeed, the entire universe) than does the doctor of today. The Chinese doctor valued to learn ow the patient had violated the tao, and to do this he took into identify the patients rank changes in his or her kindly status, household, economic position, sense of easily-being, or appetite the abide and the dreams of the patient and his or he r family. Perhaps the most important diagnostic technique of the ancient Chinese was examination of the pulse. The physician matte the right radiocarpal joint and then the left. He compared the beats with his own, noting precise time as well as day and season since each arcminute affected the nature of the pulsations. individually pulse had three distinct offices, each associated with a special(prenominal) organ, and each division had a separate quality, of which there were dozens of varieties. Moreover, each division or zone of the pulse had a careless and deep projection. then literally hundreds of possible characteristics were obtainable. In one treatise, Muo-Ching, ten volumes were necessary to cover all the intricacies of the pulse. A patient had precisely to moderate his or her arm through drawn bed curtains for the physician to determine the symptoms, diagnosis, prognosis, and proper treatment by intensive palpation of the pulse.Whenever possible the examiner also entangle the scrape up of the ill person. However, it was considered bad form for a man to intimately examine a woman, so special ceramic, ivory, and woody dolls were pointed to by the hinder to indicate where discomfort was felt. give-and-take According to the Nei Ching, there were five methods of treatment cure the spirit, nourish the body, give practice of medicines, treat the unhurt body, and use acupuncture and moxibustion. The physician had to put the patient back on the right path, the tao.Assuming that precise mental states caused changes in specific organs, the healer tie in real exceptionable behavioral and constitutional ciphers with illness and attempted to have the patient domesticate these. For instance, dissolute and licentious ideas led to diseases of the lungs, alone acting out much(prenominal) thoughts brought on heart trouble. A doctor had to determine the cause of disharmony in the body and act curbly. Exercises were developed to donjon the bo dy fit and to restore well-being. Hua To, the great operating surgeon, worked out an able system of corporal therapy by advising mimicry of the natural movements of animals.Massagekneading, tapping, pinching, and chafingwas also a regular method of treatment, as were the application of plasters and evacuation of the intestinal piece of land by cathartics. In nourishing a patients body, the physician resorted to complex combinations of foods according to their potential amounts of yang and yin. Foods also had to fit the seasons, and each of the five tastes had benefits for a particular element of the body sour for the bones, pungent for the tendons, salty for the blood, bitter for respiration, and fragrance for muscle.Medications The Chinese pharmacopoeia was eternally rich, from the time of the Pen-tsao, the first medical herbal, to the later dynasties when 2 thousand items and 16 thousand prescriptions make up the armamentarium. Drugs were considered more promising to be rock-steady if they tasted bad. As one would expect, they were classified into five categories herbs, trees, insects, stones, and grains. The healthful minerals and metals included compounds of hydrargyrum (calomel was employed for venereal diseases), arsenic, and magnetic stones.Animal-derived remedies, in step-up to dragon odontiasis (powdered fossilized bones), included virtually anything obtainable from living creatures whole parts, segments of organs, urine, dung. two plant substances especially associated with China whitethorn be singled out. One is joint fir (ma huang), the horsetail plant described by the Red Emperor, which was used for thousands of years as a stimulant, as a remedy for respiratory -diseases, to induce fevers and perspiration, and to set out coughs.Ephedra entered the Greek pharmacopoeia and eventually was disseminated throughout most of the world. It altogether became a factor in western medicine in the late nineteenth century after japanese inves tigators isolated and purified the active principle, ephedrine, and established its pharmacologic action. A second medicinal herb, always highly open among the Chinese, is nin-sin (man-shaped showtime). To the Chinese, preparations containing ginseng were almost miraculous in delaying old age, restoring sexual powers, bear on the debilitated, and sedating the overwrought.In addition it improved diabetes and stabilized blood pressure. In late(a) years this root has been under scrutiny by Western pharmacologists attempting to evaluate its veritable benefits. Multitudes in Asia, and even some Westerners, are so convinced of its military capability that high-grade wild roots have brought mythic prices (even reaching thousands of dollars apiece). Although many items in the Chinese materia medica have either attenuate into bscurity or been labeled fanciful, others subsequently have been found to possess sound pharmacologic bases seaweed, which contains iodine, was used in treating enlargement of the thyroid the willow plant, containing salicylic acid, was a remedy for rheumatism the Siberian wort has antispasmodics for menstrual discomfort and mulberry f cut downs contain rutin, a treatment for elevated blood pressure. Whether opium was used as a drug before kind of late in Chinese biography is still in dispute. Acupuncture and Moxibustion These modalities have been an integral part of Chinese medical therapy for thousands of years.The Yellow Emperor is said to have invented them, except they may well have existed long before his time. The aim of these treatments was to drain reach excess yang or yin and thus establish a proper balance, but out-of-door might also could be introduced into the body. In acupuncture the skin is pierced by long needles to varying decreed depths. Needles are inserted into any of 365 points along the twelve meridians that traverse the body and transmit an active deportment force called chi. Each of these points is related to a particular organ.For instance, puncture of a certain spot on the ear lobe might be the proper way to treat an abdominal ailment. Virtually every illness, weakness, and symptom is thought to be consonant to correction by acupuncture. Acupuncture outflank to Korea and lacquer by the end of the tenth part century A. D. , to Europe about the seventeenth century, and recent years have seen a wider interest in this Chinese medical practice in the West. Individual paramedical healers and even some medical practitioners have been swamped with requests for acupuncture, especially for problems apparently little benefited by un master key practices.The eventual acceptableness of this practice in standard Western medicine remains to be seen. Moxibustion is as old as acupuncture, and the same meridians and points govern placement of the moxa. However, in this treatment a powdered plant substance, commonly mugwort, is fashioned into a vitiated mound on the patients skin and burned, o rdinarily raising a blister. Dentistry The treatment of tooth disorders was confined mainly to applying or ingesting drugspomegranate, aconite, ginseng, garlic, rhubarb, and arsenic, as well as animal products such as dung and urine.The Nei Ching classified nine types of toothaches, which included some obviously due to infections and tooth decay. same(p) the Mesopotamians and Egyptians, the ancient Chinese believed that worms were oft responsible for dental problems. Toothpicks and tooth whiteners were used, and loose dentition were stabilized with bamboo splints. Gold was sometimes used to cover teeth, but the tendency was decorative rather than protective. Surgery Although surgery was not one of the five methods of treatment listed in the Nei Ching, the knife was known and used.Hua To, one of the few get ups mentioned in company with surgery, treated an arm wound of the famous widely distributed Kuan Yu by smashing his flesh and scraping the bone. Physicians knew how to d eal with wounds, and at least two classics were utilize entirely to their treatment. The proper attitude toward pain was to jump it without a ratify of emotion, and much was made of the insouciance of the general treated by Hua To he played chess while the surgeon operated. Nevertheless, apparently some kind of anesthesia was often used.Wine and drugs like genus Hyoscyamus were probably mainstays, but the use of opium and Indian hemp is still in question. Eunuchs and Footbinding Another working(a) procedure, though hardly therapeutic, was the frequent castration of certain males seeking advance at court. Though originally a unrelenting punishment, the total removal of penis and testicles came to be a pledge of unconditional allegiance to the monarch, since it released the castrate from conflict with Confucian admonitions of first loyalty to family and the certificate of indebtedness of siring a son for posterity.Footbinding is also of medical interest, for it caused the de velopment of artificially clubbed feet. Over a item of one thousand years, every young girlfriend of proper family volitionally permitted herself to be crippled by her mother and aunts to attain the tiny base of operations of ideal feminine beauty. Her toes were gradually folded under the sole, and by increasingly skinny bandaging her heelbone and forefoot were brought closer together. Without Golden Lotuses, as the best-shaped bound feet were called, a girl was unmarriageable, nor was the life of a courtesan open to her, for tiny feet were a womans most desirable feature.For a man, a bound-foot married woman had profound sexual significance, but she was also a status symbol inasmuch as her failing indicated that he was wealthy enough to support a woman, or women, in idleness. There was also an advantage to him in her restrict mobility, for it kept her planetary house and made illicit amorous adventures difficult. Although Chinas Manchu conquerors forbade the practice in th e nineteenth century, it was not until the first twentieth that footbinding was completely abandoned. Diseases Some pandemic diseases were understood well enough to allow the development of protective measures.In the ordinal century, inoculation against variola major was effected by putting scabs from smallpox pustules into the nostrils, a method which may have come from India. Wearing the clothing of soulfulness who had the disease was another means of prevention. The relationship of cowpox (as a protective) to smallpox may have been perceived, since ingesting powdered fleas from infected cows was also recommended to lag off smallpox. precisely other devastating pestilences were neither understood nor held in check. During the Han dynasty an epiphytotic of what appears to have been typhoid fever killed two-thirds of the population of one region.Precise descriptions of leprosy in the Nei Ching and later works attest to the diagnostic accuracy of the primaeval Chinese healer s, but their comment of the diseases causes and their treatment follow preconceived notions of the time. The wind and chills order of magnitude in the blood vessels and cannot be got rid of. This is called li-feng. For the treatment prick the self-conceited parts with a sharp needle to let the foul air out. Fourteenth-century writings referred to chaulmoogra tree oil, a pressing from seeds of an East Indian tree, as a specific for leprosy, and this oil remained the principal antileprous drug even in the West until recent decades.An illness that may have been tuberculosis was accept as hereditary Generally the disease gives rise to high fever, sweating, asthenia, unlocalized constancy making all positions difficult and slowly bringing about inspiration and death, after which the disease is transmitted to the relations until the whole family has been wiped out. Venereal diseases, although not well differentiated, veritable a variety of therapies, including the use of metalli c substances for internal medication.In the Secret Therapy for the Treatment of Venereal Disease, the seventeenth-century physician Chun Szi-sung reported using arsenic, which, until the development of penicillin, was the modern medication for venereal disease, in the form of Salvarsan and derivatives synthesized by capital of Minnesota Ehrlich. There search always to have been places in China where the disturbed poor could go for medical care. With the advance of Buddhism in the Han and Tang dynasties, in-patient hospitals staffed by physician-priests became common.However, in the ninth century, when anti-Buddhists were in control, hospitals as well as 4,600 temples were destroyed or emptied. Nevertheless, by the one-twelfth century hospitals had again become so numerous that virtually every district had at least one tax-supported institution. The speed classes favorite(a) to be treated and cared for in their homes, thus leaving public hospitals to the poor and lower classes. T he Practitioners In the Institutions of Chou, compiled hundreds of years before Christ, the hierarchy of physicians in the kingdom was delineated.The five categories were chief physician (who collected drugs, examined other physicians, and appoint them) food physicians (who prescribed six kinds of food and drink) physicians for simple diseases (such as headaches, colds, kidskin wounds) ulcer physicians (who may have been the surgeons) and physicians for animals (evidently veterinarians). Physicians were also rated according to their results, and as other(a) as the Chou and Tang dynasties each doctor had to report both successes and failuresto control his movement up or down in the ranks.In the seventh century A. D. examinations were required for one to transform as a physician, some four centuries earlier than the first licensing system in the West. Medical knowledge was thought of as a secret power that belonged to each practitioner. Whereas in other societies, both advance an d primitive, closely knit guilds might control the spread of medical lore, the Chinese physician kept his secrets to himselfpassing them on only to sons or, sometimes, specially selected qualifiers.In proto(prenominal) times, a physician gave his services out of philanthropy, for since the original healers were rulers, sages, nobles, and, perhaps, priests, economic and societal incentives were absent. Later, direct fees or salaries were instituted, and the court and certain stentorian households kept physicians on retainer. Formal educates may have existed as first as the tenth century, and in the eleventh century an organization for medical education was set up under imperial auspices. Under the Ming dynasty in the fourteenth century, the instruct system became fixed. It changed little over the neighboring centuries, xcept for a gradual decline, and by 1800 there was only one medical school left in Peking. Teachers were held strictly accountable for the performance of their students, and fines were imposed if the prof failed to enforce attending or if his pupils did poorly on exams. The examination system was complex a pyramidal structure provided a process of excretion which continued until those with the highest scores emerged. The top students could be heart doctors, the next direct were assistant examiners, and lower scores could mean limited assignment in teaching.Specialization may have occurred early. While physicians and apothecaries were separate for a long time, they were both regarded as healers. In the Chou dynasty there were nine specialties, and they grew to thirteen by the Mongol period, early in the fourteenth century. The subdivisions became even more complex, with doctors for the great blood vessels, small vessels, fevers, smallpox, eyes, skin, bones, larynx, and mouth and teeth. There were also gynecologists, pediatricians, and pulsologists for internal diseases, external medicine, the nose and throat, and for childrens illnesses. Some healers specialize in moxibustion, acupuncture, or massage. Even the experts in deception and dietetics were considered medical specialists and were often held in higher regard than other doctors surgeons were slackly of low rank. Furthermore, each of the practitioners in each category had assistants and studentsall of whom had to qualify by examination. obstetrics was in the hands of midwives for many centuries it is not known when the first women doctors were in practice. One female physician is mentioned by name in documents from the Han dynasty (206 B.C. -A. D. 220), but women may have been doctors at an earlier date. By the fourteenth century women were officially recognized as physicians. Throughout the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), the practicing medical theorists could be divided up into six main philosophic schools. The Yin-yang collection rivet on insufficiencies of one of these forces. The Wen-pou doctors attributed illnesses to a preponderance of yang and frequent ly prescribed ginseng and aconite. The Radical group used drastic medication.The Conservatives relied entirely on the government activity of the past, reedited the classic works, and made no deviations from strict authoritarianism. The Eclectic physicians, as their name implies, used a variety of principles from the other sects. The sixth school found all therapy on bringing the five elements and six vapors into harmony. fiesta of Chinese Medicine to Korea, Japan, And Tibet Ancient Chinese medicine was well-developed long before the beginning of the Christian era, and its exercise appears to have spread into adjacent Korea by the sixth century A.D. At that time, after a severe epidemic had ravaged Japan, Korean doctors who were invited to counsel Nipponese physicians introduced them to Chinese medical classics and commentaries. By the seventh century, Nipponese scholars and doctors were going directly to China for their information and experience. In the eighth century, a Chin ese Buddhist monk named Chien Chen came to Japan and achieved a tumid position in the imperial court at Nara, where, given the Japanese name Kanjin, he taught, practiced medicine, and translated Chinese materia medica.Late in that century, Chinese medicine was well-established in Japan, and a medical school ground on its methodological analysis was founded by the Japanese physician Wake Hiroya. Early in the next century (80610), the Emperor Heijo vainly attempted to combat foreign influence and restore traditional Japanese medical practice, but the methods of Chinese ameliorate were too firmly entrenched. In the tenth century, acupuncture reached Japan, followed by moxibusti on (the word moxa is Japanese), and the full complement of Chinese medicine was accepted in Japan.With medical training closely based on Chinese systems, the Japanese exacted exceptionally intensive and prolonged study before permitting entrance into the vocation by governmental examination. As in ancient Ch ina, high social standing was a requirement for admission to medical school, but separate instruction by assigned teachers was apparently also arrange to obtain the more lowly. The authority of Chinese medicine, not to mention Chinese culture and philosophy, moved east as well as west by the seventh and eighth centuries.However, Arabic and Indian missionaries of Islam and Buddhism made influence a two-way exchange as they traveled to China seeking converts. Since their missions necessitated the exposition of Sanskrit and Arabic writings into Chinese and vice versa, medical knowledge inevitably was passed back and forth. Consequently, the crossroads areas of Southeast Asia and Tibet developed a medical system combining aspects of Chinese, Indian, and Arabic practice. Arabic influence, which stemmed in part from Greek teachings, was evident in the doctrine of four humors (phlegm, blood, bile, and wind), whereas Indian deas were seen in the yogistic placement of the soul in the co re of the spinal column and faith on breathing exercises. Traveling Buddhist priests, who were quite successful in spreading their faith, for a long time also practiced medicine. During this early period, the two wives (one Chinese) of a Tibetan king converted him to Buddhism, and thereafter scholars were invited to bring Chinese writings into Tibet, which resulted in collections in Tibetan called Kanjur and Tanjur, the latter containing medical information.In the thirteenth century, the Mongol conqueror Kublai Khan wanted this body of knowledge available again in Chinese but was unable to carry through the translation. Nevertheless, his grandson in the next century arranged for scholars from Tibet, Mongolia, and Central Asia to come across the task. Ironically, while the Mongols were in control they allied themselves with non-Chinese such as Uighars, Jews, Christians, and Moslems, and they preferred Arabic medicine to Chinese.Essay of Ancient ChinaAncient China In ancient Chines e cosmology, the universe was created not by divinities but self-generated from the interplay of natures basic duality the active, light, dry, warm, positive, masculine yang and the passive, dark, cold, moist, negative yin. All things, animate and inanimate, and all circumstances were a combination of these fundamentals. The ultimate principle of the universe was the tao, the way, and it determined the proper proportions of yin and yang in everything. Anything that altered the natural relation of yin to yang was considered bad, and right living consisted of carefully following the tao.If one observed the tao by moderation, equanimity, and morality, as taught in the Tao-te Ching, by Lao-tzu (sixth century B. C. ), one would be impervious to disease and resistant to the ravages of aging disregard of the tao led to illness, which was not so much a punishment for sin as the inevitable result of acting contrary to natural laws. However, illness also could be caused by forces beyond ones control Wind is the cause of a hundred diseases, and atmospheric conditions could upset the harmonious inner balance of the yang and yin.One had to be alert to this possibility and combat its effects as well as modify internal imbalances of the vital forces. Longevity and health were the rewards. Chinese medicine, in league with Taoism, was focused on the prevention of illness for, as the legendary Huang Ti, father of Chinese medicine, observed, the superior physician helps before the early budding of disease. Although Taoist hygiene called for temperance and simplicity in most things, sexual mores were governed by the yin-yang aspect of Chinese philosophy.Ejaculation in intercourse led to diminution of a mans yang, which, of course, upset the inner balance of his nature. On the other hand, one was strengthened by absorption of the yin released by the orgasm of ones female partnerunless she was over thirty, the point where female essence lost its efficacy. The tao was important in Confucianism also, as the path of virtuous conduct, and for centuries the precepts of Confucius (Kung Fu-tzu, 550-479 B. C. ) set the most prevalent standards of behavior. In early Chinese philosophy, there was a tendency to accept and combine aspects of all religions and to make way for new ideas.Nevertheless, the ancient Chinese were profoundly conservative once an institution, custom, philosophy, mode of dress, or even a furniture style was firmly established, and it remained relatively unchanged over centuries. As Confucius said Gather in the same places where our fathers before us have gathered perform the same ceremonies which they before us have performed play the same music which they before us have played pay respect to those whom they honored love those who were dear to them. Although ancient Chinas development was relatively isolated, there was early contact with India and Tibet.Buddhism came to China from India, and medical concepts and practices were an important part of its teachings. The gymnastic and breathing exercises in Chinese medical methodology also came from India and were closely related to the principles of Yoga and to aspects of Ayurvedic medicine. There were also contacts with Southeast Asia, Persia, and the Arabic world. In the second century B. C. , the Chinese ambassador Chang Chien spent more than a decade in Mesopotamia, Syria, and Egypt, bringing back information on drugs, viticulture, and other subjects.Over the centuries, knowledge of humoral medicine and of numerous new medicaments filtered into China. The introduction of the wisdom of the Mediterranean world was greatly facilitated in the fifth century by the expulsion and wide dispersion from Constantinople of the heretical Nestorian Christians. The mother of Kublai Khan (1216-94), founder of the Mongol dynasty, was a Nestorian and asked the Pope to send European doctors to China. Early Medical Writings Classical Chinese medicine was based primarily on works ascribed to t hree legendary emperors. The most ancient was Fu Hsi (c. 2900 B. C. , who was said to have originated the pa kua, a symbol composed of yang lines and yin lines combined in eight (pa) separate trigrams (kua) which could represent all yin-yang conditions. This system is followed even today in the I Ching (Book of Changes), though as a game or superstition in the West. Shen Nung, the Red Emperor (Hung Ti), compiled the first medical herbal, the Pen-tsao (c. 2800 B. C. ), in which he reported the effects of 365 drugs, all of them personally tested. One legend explains that a magic drug made his abdominal skin transparent, so he could observe the action of the many plants he evaluated.Another story tells that he cut open his abdomen and stitched in a window. Shen Nung is also said to have drawn up the first charts on acupuncture, a medical procedure presumably even older than the legendary emperors. The fame of Yu Hsiung (c. 2600 B. C. ), the Yellow Emperor (Huang Ti), rests on his great medical compendium, the Nei Ching (Canon of Medicine). Transmitted orally for many centuries, this seminal work was possibly committed to writing by the third century B. C. Its present form dates from the eighth century A. D. when the last extensive revision was done by Wang Ping. The major portion of the Nei Ching, the Sun-Wen (Simple Questions), records the discourse of the Yellow Emperor with Chi Po, his prime minister, on virtually all phases of health and illness, including prevention and treatment. The section called Ling-Hsu (Spiritual Nucleus), deals entirely with acupuncture. Yu Hsiung also was said to be responsible for another great compendium, The Discourses of the Yellow Emperor and the Plain Girl, which thoroughly covered the subject of sex from the Taoist point of view.Among other notable sources for ancient medical lore, one might mention the Shih Ching (Book of Odes), which perhaps predates Homers epics, and the Lun-yu, discourses of Confucius probably written down shortly after his death, which affected patterns of behavior for many generations. During the long Chou dynasty (c. 1050-255 B. C. ), a lengthy compilation of medical works, Institutions of Chou, was completed and became the criterion for subsequent dynasties on the duties and organization of physicians. In the Han dynasty (206 B. C. -A. D. 20), there was a noted clinical author named Tsang Kung, who pioneered in the description of many diseases, including cancer of the stomach, aneurysm, and rheumatism. Chang Chung-ching, the Chinese Hippocrates, in the third century A. D. , wrote the classic treatise Typhoid and Other Fevers. Ko Hung, a famed alchemist and a careful observer, wrote treatises describing beriberi (a vitamin B deficiency), hepatitis, and plague, and gave one of the earliest reports on smallpox As the New Year approached there was a seasonal affection in which pustules appeared on the face and spread rapidly all over the body.They looked like burns covered with white starch and reformed as soon as they were broken. The majority died if not treated. After recovery purplish black scars remained. Sun Szu-miao (A. D. 581-682) wrote Chien Chin Yao Fang (A Thousand Golden Remedies), which summarized in thirty volumes much of the known medical learning, and he headed a committee which produced a fifty-volume collection on pathology. An extensive codification of forensic medicine, Hsi Yuan Lu, was done in the Sung dynasty and became the prime source for knowledge of medical jurisprudence.Anatomy and Physiology Ideas of anatomy in ancient China were reached by reasoning and. by assumption rather than dissection or direct observation. Since the doctrines of Confucius forbade violation of the body, it was not until the eighteenth century, long after Vesalius, that the Chinese began systematic, direct anatomical studies. Even as late as the nineteenth century, in the Viceroys Hospital Medical School, anatomy was taught by diagrams and artificial models ra ther than dissection.Physiological functions were constructed into a humoral system much like Greek concepts of the sixth century B. C. and Galenic views of the second century A. D. , except that there were five instead of four essential humors. (The number five had mystical value for the Chinese and was used for most classifications five elements, five tastes, five qualities, five kinds of drugs, five treatments, five solid organs, five seasons, five emotions, five colors, etc. ) The medical compendium Nei Ching stated that each emotion had its seat in a particular organ.Happiness dwelt in the heart, thought in the spleen, sorrow in the lungs, and the liver housed anger as well as the soul. Ideas in the Nei Ching concerning movement of the blood (All the blood is under control of the heart. The blood current flows continuously in a circle and never stops. ) have been thought to approach an understanding of its circulation antedating Harvey by thousands of years however, some body vessels were believed to convey air, and there is little evidence that commentators perceived the blood-carrying vessels as a contained system. DiagnosisThe Chinese methods of diagnosis included questioning, feeling the pulse, observing the voice and body, and in some circumstances touching the affected parts. In almost all times and cultures physicians have used a similar approach, for all healers have sought to know as much as possible about a patient in order to understand his or her illness and advise treatment. However, in some respects ancient physicians saw each patient more completely as a reflection of his surroundings (indeed, the entire universe) than does the doctor of today. The Chinese doctor wanted to learn ow the patient had violated the tao, and to do this he took into account the patients rank changes in his or her social status, household, economic position, sense of well-being, or appetite the weather and the dreams of the patient and his or her family. Perhaps t he most important diagnostic technique of the ancient Chinese was examination of the pulse. The physician felt the right wrist and then the left. He compared the beats with his own, noting precise time as well as day and season since each hour affected the nature of the pulsations.Each pulse had three distinct divisions, each associated with a specific organ, and each division had a separate quality, of which there were dozens of varieties. Moreover, each division or zone of the pulse had a superficial and deep projection. Thus literally hundreds of possible characteristics were obtainable. In one treatise, Muo-Ching, ten volumes were necessary to cover all the intricacies of the pulse. A patient had only to extend his or her arm through drawn bed curtains for the physician to determine the symptoms, diagnosis, prognosis, and proper treatment by intensive palpation of the pulse.Whenever possible the examiner also felt the skin of the ill person. However, it was considered bad form f or a man to intimately examine a woman, so special ceramic, ivory, and wooden dolls were pointed to by the invalid to indicate where discomfort was felt. Treatment According to the Nei Ching, there were five methods of treatment cure the spirit, nourish the body, give medications, treat the whole body, and use acupuncture and moxibustion. The physician had to put the patient back on the right path, the tao.Assuming that specific mental states caused changes in specific organs, the healer linked certain objectionable behavioral and constitutional factors with illness and attempted to have the patient rectify these. For instance, dissolute and licentious ideas led to diseases of the lungs, but acting out such thoughts brought on heart trouble. A doctor had to determine the cause of disharmony in the body and act accordingly. Exercises were developed to keep the body fit and to restore well-being. Hua To, the great surgeon, worked out an ingenious system of physical therapy by advising mimicry of the natural movements of animals.Massagekneading, tapping, pinching, and chafingwas also a regular method of treatment, as were the application of plasters and evacuation of the intestinal tract by cathartics. In nourishing a patients body, the physician resorted to complex combinations of foods according to their potential amounts of yang and yin. Foods also had to fit the seasons, and each of the five tastes had benefits for a particular element of the body sour for the bones, pungent for the tendons, salty for the blood, bitter for respiration, and sweet for muscle.Medications The Chinese pharmacopoeia was always rich, from the time of the Pen-tsao, the first medical herbal, to the later dynasties when two thousand items and sixteen thousand prescriptions made up the armamentarium. Drugs were considered more likely to be good if they tasted bad. As one would expect, they were classified into five categories herbs, trees, insects, stones, and grains. The therapeutic mi nerals and metals included compounds of mercury (calomel was employed for venereal diseases), arsenic, and magnetic stones.Animal-derived remedies, in addition to dragon teeth (powdered fossilized bones), included virtually anything obtainable from living creatures whole parts, segments of organs, urine, dung. Two plant substances especially associated with China may be singled out. One is ephedra (ma huang), the horsetail plant described by the Red Emperor, which was used for thousands of years as a stimulant, as a remedy for respiratory -diseases, to induce fevers and perspiration, and to depress coughs.Ephedra entered the Greek pharmacopoeia and eventually was disseminated throughout most of the world. It only became a factor in Western medicine in the late nineteenth century after Japanese investigators isolated and purified the active principle, ephedrine, and established its pharmacologic action. A second medicinal herb, always highly popular among the Chinese, is ginseng (man -shaped root). To the Chinese, preparations containing ginseng were almost miraculous in delaying old age, restoring sexual powers, stimulating the debilitated, and sedating the overwrought.In addition it improved diabetes and stabilized blood pressure. In recent years this root has been under scrutiny by Western pharmacologists attempting to evaluate its true benefits. Multitudes in Asia, and even some Westerners, are so convinced of its effectiveness that high-grade wild roots have brought fabulous prices (even reaching thousands of dollars apiece). Although many items in the Chinese materia medica have either faded into bscurity or been labeled fanciful, others subsequently have been found to possess sound pharmacologic bases seaweed, which contains iodine, was used in treating enlargement of the thyroid the willow plant, containing salicylic acid, was a remedy for rheumatism the Siberian wort has antispasmodics for menstrual discomfort and mulberry flowers contain rutin, a treat ment for elevated blood pressure. Whether opium was used as a drug before quite late in Chinese history is still in dispute. Acupuncture and Moxibustion These modalities have been an integral part of Chinese medical therapy for thousands of years.The Yellow Emperor is said to have invented them, but they may well have existed long before his time. The aim of these treatments was to drain off excess yang or yin and thus establish a proper balance, but external energy also could be introduced into the body. In acupuncture the skin is pierced by long needles to varying prescribed depths. Needles are inserted into any of 365 points along the twelve meridians that traverse the body and transmit an active life force called chi. Each of these points is related to a particular organ.For instance, puncture of a certain spot on the ear lobe might be the proper way to treat an abdominal ailment. Virtually every illness, weakness, and symptom is thought to be amenable to correction by acupunctu re. Acupuncture spread to Korea and Japan by the end of the tenth century A. D. , to Europe about the seventeenth century, and recent years have seen a wider interest in this Chinese medical practice in the West. Individual paramedical healers and even some medical practitioners have been swamped with requests for acupuncture, especially for problems apparently little benefited by conventional practices.The eventual acceptability of this practice in standard Western medicine remains to be seen. Moxibustion is as old as acupuncture, and the same meridians and points govern placement of the moxa. However, in this treatment a powdered plant substance, usually mugwort, is fashioned into a small mound on the patients skin and burned, usually raising a blister. Dentistry The treatment of tooth disorders was confined mainly to applying or ingesting drugspomegranate, aconite, ginseng, garlic, rhubarb, and arsenic, as well as animal products such as dung and urine.The Nei Ching classified ni ne types of toothaches, which included some obviously due to infections and tooth decay. Like the Mesopotamians and Egyptians, the ancient Chinese believed that worms were often responsible for dental problems. Toothpicks and tooth whiteners were used, and loose teeth were stabilized with bamboo splints. Gold was sometimes used to cover teeth, but the purpose was decorative rather than protective. Surgery Although surgery was not one of the five methods of treatment listed in the Nei Ching, the knife was known and used.Hua To, one of the few names mentioned in connection with surgery, treated an arm wound of the famous general Kuan Yu by cutting his flesh and scraping the bone. Physicians knew how to deal with wounds, and at least two classics were devoted entirely to their treatment. The proper attitude toward pain was to bear it without a sign of emotion, and much was made of the insouciance of the general treated by Hua To he played chess while the surgeon operated. Nevertheless, apparently some kind of anesthesia was often used.Wine and drugs like hyoscyamus were probably mainstays, but the use of opium and Indian hemp is still in question. Eunuchs and Footbinding Another surgical procedure, though hardly therapeutic, was the frequent castration of certain males seeking advancement at court. Though originally a severe punishment, the total removal of penis and testicles came to be a pledge of absolute allegiance to the monarch, since it released the eunuch from conflict with Confucian admonitions of first loyalty to family and the obligation of siring a son for posterity.Footbinding is also of medical interest, for it caused the development of artificially clubbed feet. Over a period of one thousand years, every young girl of proper family willingly permitted herself to be crippled by her mother and aunts to achieve the tiny foot of ideal feminine beauty. Her toes were gradually folded under the sole, and by increasingly tight bandaging her heelbone and fo refoot were brought closer together. Without Golden Lotuses, as the best-shaped bound feet were called, a girl was unmarriageable, nor was the life of a courtesan open to her, for tiny feet were a womans most desirable feature.For a man, a bound-foot wife had profound sexual significance, but she was also a status symbol inasmuch as her helplessness indicated that he was wealthy enough to support a woman, or women, in idleness. There was also an advantage to him in her restricted mobility, for it kept her home and made illicit amorous adventures difficult. Although Chinas Manchu conquerors forbade the practice in the nineteenth century, it was not until the early twentieth that footbinding was completely abandoned. Diseases Some epidemic diseases were understood well enough to allow the development of protective measures.In the eleventh century, inoculation against smallpox was effected by putting scabs from smallpox pustules into the nostrils, a method which may have come from Indi a. Wearing the clothing of someone who had the disease was another means of prevention. The relationship of cowpox (as a protective) to smallpox may have been perceived, since ingesting powdered fleas from infected cows was also recommended to stave off smallpox. But other devastating pestilences were neither understood nor held in check. During the Han dynasty an epidemic of what appears to have been typhoid fever killed two-thirds of the population of one region.Precise descriptions of leprosy in the Nei Ching and later works attest to the diagnostic accuracy of the early Chinese healers, but their explanation of the diseases causes and their treatment follow preconceived notions of the time. The wind and chills lodge in the blood vessels and cannot be got rid of. This is called li-feng. For the treatment prick the swollen parts with a sharp needle to let the foul air out. Fourteenth-century writings referred to chaulmoogra oil, a pressing from seeds of an East Indian tree, as a specific for leprosy, and this oil remained the principal antileprous drug even in the West until recent decades.An illness that may have been tuberculosis was recognized as contagious Generally the disease gives rise to high fever, sweating, asthenia, unlocalized pains making all positions difficult and slowly bringing about consumption and death, after which the disease is transmitted to the relations until the whole family has been wiped out. Venereal diseases, although not well differentiated, received a variety of therapies, including the use of metallic substances for internal medication.In the Secret Therapy for the Treatment of Venereal Disease, the seventeenth-century physician Chun Szi-sung reported using arsenic, which, until the development of penicillin, was the modern medication for venereal disease, in the form of Salvarsan and derivatives synthesized by Paul Ehrlich. There seem always to have been places in China where the sick poor could go for medical care. With t he advance of Buddhism in the Han and Tang dynasties, in-patient hospitals staffed by physician-priests became common.However, in the ninth century, when anti-Buddhists were in control, hospitals as well as 4,600 temples were destroyed or emptied. Nevertheless, by the twelfth century hospitals had again become so numerous that virtually every district had at least one tax-supported institution. The upper classes preferred to be treated and cared for in their homes, thus leaving public hospitals to the poor and lower classes. The Practitioners In the Institutions of Chou, compiled hundreds of years before Christ, the hierarchy of physicians in the kingdom was delineated.The five categories were chief physician (who collected drugs, examined other physicians, and assigned them) food physicians (who prescribed six kinds of food and drink) physicians for simple diseases (such as headaches, colds, minor wounds) ulcer physicians (who may have been the surgeons) and physicians for animals (evidently veterinarians). Physicians were also rated according to their results, and as early as the Chou and Tang dynasties each doctor had to report both successes and failuresto control his movement up or down in the ranks.In the seventh century A. D. examinations were required for one to qualify as a physician, some four centuries earlier than the first licensing system in the West. Medical knowledge was thought of as a secret power that belonged to each practitioner. Whereas in other societies, both advanced and primitive, closely knit guilds might control the spread of medical lore, the Chinese physician kept his secrets to himselfpassing them on only to sons or, sometimes, specially selected qualifiers.In early times, a physician gave his services out of philanthropy, for since the original healers were rulers, sages, nobles, and, perhaps, priests, economic and social incentives were absent. Later, direct fees or salaries were instituted, and the court and certain prosperous households kept physicians on retainer. Formal schools may have existed as early as the tenth century, and in the eleventh century an organization for medical education was set up under imperial auspices. Under the Ming dynasty in the fourteenth century, the school system became fixed. It changed little over the next centuries, xcept for a gradual decline, and by 1800 there was only one medical school left in Peking. Teachers were held strictly accountable for the performance of their students, and fines were imposed if the professor failed to enforce attendance or if his pupils did poorly on exams. The examination system was complex a pyramidal structure provided a process of elimination which continued until those with the highest scores emerged. The top students could be heart doctors, the next level were assistant examiners, and lower scores could mean limited assignment in teaching.Specialization may have occurred early. While physicians and apothecaries were separate for a lo ng time, they were both regarded as healers. In the Chou dynasty there were nine specialties, and they grew to thirteen by the Mongol period, early in the fourteenth century. The subdivisions became even more complex, with doctors for the great blood vessels, small vessels, fevers, smallpox, eyes, skin, bones, larynx, and mouth and teeth. There were also gynecologists, pediatricians, and pulsologists for internal diseases, external medicine, the nose and throat, and for childrens illnesses.Some healers specialized in moxibustion, acupuncture, or massage. Even the experts in incantation and dietetics were considered medical specialists and were often held in higher regard than other doctors surgeons were generally of low rank. Furthermore, each of the practitioners in each category had assistants and studentsall of whom had to qualify by examination. Obstetrics was in the hands of midwives for many centuries it is not known when the first women doctors were in practice. One female ph ysician is mentioned by name in documents from the Han dynasty (206 B.C. -A. D. 220), but women may have been doctors at an earlier date. By the fourteenth century women were officially recognized as physicians. Throughout the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), the practicing medical theorists could be divided into six main philosophic schools. The Yin-yang group focused on insufficiencies of one of these forces. The Wen-pou doctors attributed illnesses to a preponderance of yang and frequently prescribed ginseng and aconite. The Radical group used drastic medication.The Conservatives relied entirely on the authorities of the past, reedited the classic works, and made no deviations from strict authoritarianism. The Eclectic physicians, as their name implies, used a variety of principles from the other sects. The sixth school based all therapy on bringing the five elements and six vapors into harmony. Spread of Chinese Medicine to Korea, Japan, And Tibet Ancient Chinese medicine was well-deve loped long before the beginning of the Christian era, and its influence appears to have spread into adjacent Korea by the sixth century A.D. At that time, after a severe epidemic had ravaged Japan, Korean doctors who were invited to counsel Japanese physicians introduced them to Chinese medical classics and commentaries. By the seventh century, Japanese scholars and doctors were going directly to China for their information and experience. In the eighth century, a Chinese Buddhist monk named Chien Chen came to Japan and achieved a prominent position in the imperial court at Nara, where, given the Japanese name Kanjin, he taught, practiced medicine, and translated Chinese materia medica.Late in that century, Chinese medicine was well-established in Japan, and a medical school based on its methodology was founded by the Japanese physician Wake Hiroya. Early in the next century (80610), the Emperor Heijo vainly attempted to combat foreign influence and restore traditional Japanese medi cal practice, but the methods of Chinese healing were too firmly entrenched. In the tenth century, acupuncture reached Japan, followed by moxibusti on (the word moxa is Japanese), and the full complement of Chinese medicine was accepted in Japan.With medical training closely based on Chinese systems, the Japanese exacted exceptionally intensive and prolonged study before permitting entrance into the profession by governmental examination. As in ancient China, high social standing was a requirement for admission to medical school, but separate instruction by assigned teachers was apparently also arranged to accommodate the more lowly. The authority of Chinese medicine, not to mention Chinese culture and philosophy, moved east as well as west by the seventh and eighth centuries.However, Arabic and Indian missionaries of Islam and Buddhism made influence a two-way exchange as they traveled to China seeking converts. Since their missions necessitated the translation of Sanskrit and Arab ic writings into Chinese and vice versa, medical knowledge inevitably was passed back and forth. Consequently, the crossroads areas of Southeast Asia and Tibet developed a medical system combining aspects of Chinese, Indian, and Arabic practice. Arabic influence, which stemmed in part from Greek teachings, was evident in the doctrine of four humors (phlegm, blood, bile, and wind), whereas Indian deas were seen in the Yogic placement of the soul in the core of the spinal column and reliance on breathing exercises. Traveling Buddhist priests, who were quite successful in spreading their faith, for a long time also practiced medicine. During this early period, the two wives (one Chinese) of a Tibetan king converted him to Buddhism, and thereafter scholars were invited to bring Chinese writings into Tibet, which resulted in collections in Tibetan called Kanjur and Tanjur, the latter containing medical information.In the thirteenth century, the Mongol conqueror Kublai Khan wanted this bo dy of knowledge available again in Chinese but was unable to carry through the translation. Nevertheless, his grandson in the next century arranged for scholars from Tibet, Mongolia, and Central Asia to accomplish the task. Ironically, while the Mongols were in control they allied themselves with non-Chinese such as Uighars, Jews, Christians, and Moslems, and they preferred Arabic medicine to Chinese.